GENERAL
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Egypt, officially Arab Republic of Egypt, country in northeastern Africa and southwestern Asia. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by Israel and the Red Sea, on the south by Sudan, and on the west by Libya. The country has a maximum length from north to south of about 1,085 km (about 675 mi) and a maximum width, near the southern border, of about 1,255 km (about 780 mi). It has a total area of 997,739 sq km (385,229 sq mi). Cairo is the capital and largest city.

The land of the Nile River, Egypt is the cradle of one of the world’s greatest ancient civilizations and has a recorded history that dates from about 3200 BC. The descriptive material that follows is pertinent to modern Egypt. The History section covers Egypt from ancient times, including the Dynastic Period (3200 BC-343 BC), the Hellenistic Period (332 BC-30 BC), Roman and Byzantine Rule (30 BC-AD 638), the Caliphate and the Mamelukes (642-1517), Ottoman Domination (1517-1882), and British colonialism (1882-1952) as well as modern, independent Egypt (1952- ).

LAND AND RESOURCES
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Less than one-tenth of the land area of Egypt is settled or under cultivation. This territory consists of the valley and delta of the Nile, a number of desert oases, and land along the Suez Canal. More than 90 percent of the country consists of desert areas, including the Libyan Desert in the west, a part of the Sahara, and the Arabian Desert (also called the Eastern Desert), which borders the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez, in the east. The Libyan Desert (also known as the Western Desert) includes a vast sandy expanse called the Great Sand Sea. Located here are several depressions with elevations below sea level, including the Qattara Depression, which has an area of about 20,000 sq km (about 7,722 sq mi) and reaches a depth of 133 m (436 ft) below sea level; also found here are the oases of Siwa, Khârijah, Baḩrîyah, Farafra, and Dakhla. Much of the Arabian Desert occupies a plateau that rises gradually east from the Nile Valley to elevations of about 600 m (about 2,000 ft) in the east and is broken along the Red Sea coast by jagged peaks as high as about 2,100 m (about 7,000 ft) above sea level. In the extreme south, along the border with Sudan, is the Nubian Desert, an extensive region of dunes and sandy plains. The Sinai Peninsula consists of sandy desert in the north and rugged mountains in the south, with summits looming more than about 2,100 m (about 7,000 ft) above the Red Sea. Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrînah) (2,637 m/8,652 ft), the highest elevation in Egypt, is in the Sinai Peninsula, as is Mount Sinai (Jabal Mosá), where, according to the Old Testament, Moses received the Ten Commandments.

The Nile enters Egypt from Sudan and flows north for about 1545 km (about 960 mi) to the Mediterranean Sea. For its entire length from the southern border to Cairo, the Nile flows through a narrow valley lined by cliffs. Lake Nasser, a huge reservoir formed by the Aswân High Dam, extends south across the Sudan border. The lake is about 480 km (about 300 mi) long and is 16 km (10 mi) across at its widest point. About two-thirds of the lake lies in Egypt. South of a point near the town of Idfû, the Nile Valley is rarely more than 3 km (2 mi) wide. From Idfû to Cairo, the valley averages 23 km (14 mi) in width, with most of the arable portion on the western side. In the vicinity of Cairo the valley merges with the delta, a fan-shaped plain, the perimeter of which occupies about 250 km (about 155 mi) of the Mediterranean coastline. Silt deposited by the Rosetta (Arabic Rashid), Damietta (Arabic Dumyat), and other distributaries has made the delta the most fertile region in the country. However, the Aswân High Dam has reduced the flow of the Nile, causing the salty waters of the Mediterranean to erode land along the coast near the Nile. A series of four shallow, brackish lakes extends along the seaward extremity of the delta. Another larger lake, Birkat Qârûn, is situated inland in the desert north of the town of Al Fayyûm. Geographically and traditionally, the Nile Valley is divided into two regions, Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, the former consisting of the delta area and the latter comprising the valley south of Cairo.

Although Egypt has about 2,450 km (1,520 mi) of coastline, two-thirds of which are on the Red Sea, indentations suitable as harbors are confined to the delta. The Isthmus of Suez, which connects the Sinai Peninsula with the African mainland, is traversed from the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Suez by the Suez Canal.

CLIMATE
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The climate of Egypt is characterized by a hot season from May to September and a cool season from November to March. Extreme temperatures during both seasons are moderated by the prevailing northern winds. In the coastal region average annual temperatures range from a maximum of 37° C (99° F) to a minimum of 14° C (57° F). Wide variations of temperature occur in the deserts, ranging from a maximum of 46° C (114° F) during daylight hours to a minimum of 6° C (42° F) after sunset. During the winter season desert temperatures often drop to 0° C (32° F). The most humid area is along the Mediterranean coast, where the average annual rainfall is about 200 mm (about 8 in). Precipitation decreases rapidly to the south; Cairo receives on average only 26 mm (1 in) of rain a year, and in many desert locations it may rain only once in several years.

NATURAL RESOURCES
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Egypt has a wide variety of mineral deposits, some of which, such as gold and red granite, have been exploited since ancient times. The chief mineral resource of contemporary value is petroleum, found mainly in the Red Sea coastal region, at Al ‘Alamayn (El ‘Alamein) on the Mediterranean, and in the Sinai Peninsula. Other minerals include phosphates, manganese, iron ore, and uranium. Natural gas is also extracted.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS
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The vegetation of Egypt is confined largely to the Nile delta, the Nile Valley, and the oases. The most widespread of the few indigenous trees is the date palm. Others include the sycamore, tamarisk, acacia, and carob. Trees that have been introduced from other lands include the cypress, elm, eucalyptus, mimosa, and myrtle, and various types of fruit trees. The alluvial soils of Egypt, especially in the delta, sustain a broad variety of plant life, including grapes, many kinds of vegetables, and such flowers as the lotus, jasmine, and rose. In the arid regions alfa grass and several species of thorn are common. Papyrus, once prevalent along the banks of the Nile, is now limited to the extreme south of the country. Because of its arid climate Egypt has few indigenous wild animals. Gazelles are found in the deserts, and the desert fox, hyena, jackal, wild ass, boar, jerboa, and ichneumon inhabit various areas, mainly the delta and the mountains along the Red Sea. Among the reptiles of Egypt are lizards and several kinds of poisonous snakes, including the asp and the horned viper. The crocodile and hippopotamus, common in the lower Nile and Nile delta in antiquity, are now restricted to the upper Nile. Birdlife is abundant, especially in the Nile delta and Nile Valley.

The country has approximately 300 species of birds, including the sunbird, golden oriole, egret, hoopoe, plover, pelican, flamingo, heron, stork, quail, and snipe. Birds of prey found in Egypt include eagles, falcons, vultures, owls, kites, and hawks. Many species of insects are found in Egypt—beetles, mosquitoes, flies, and fleas being especially numerous; scorpions are found in desert areas. About 100 species of fish can be found in the Nile and in the deltaic lakes.

POLITICS STRUCTURE
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General
A basic understanding of Egyptian law requires some knowledge of the origin and basis of Egyptian jurisprudence. Egyptian legislation can be traced to three major sources: Napoleonic Code, Roman law and Islamic law (Shar'ia). Egypt is a constitutional democracy based on the principle of separation of powers between the legislative, the executive and the judicial branches. The 1971 Constitution of Egypt, as amended by the referendum of May 22, 1980, is premised upon respect for individual freedoms and for the rule of law. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land and provides for an independent judicial branch. Judges are subject to no other authority but that of the law; they serve until the age of sixty-four, until which time their jobs are secured.

Political Divisions and Principal Cities
Egypt is divided for administrative purposes into 26 governorates. The capital and largest city is Cairo; other important cities include Alexandria, the principal port; Giza, an industrial center near Cairo; Port Said, at the Mediterranean entrance to the Suez Canal; and Suez, the southern terminus of the canal.

Government
Egypt is governed by a constitution promulgated on September 11, 1971. The constitution provides for an Arab socialist state with Islam as the official religion. It also stresses social solidarity, equal opportunity, and popular control of production. Executive The head of state is the president of the republic, who is nominated by the People’s Assembly and elected by popular referendum. The president is elected for a six-year term and has the power to formulate general state policy and supervise its execution. This official can dissolve the People’s Assembly, appoint and dismiss the Prime Minister and other cabinet ministers, attend cabinet meetings, and issue decrees during emergencies, but such measures must be approved by referendum within 60 days. Also, the president declares war after approval by the People’s Assembly, ratifies treaties, commutes penalties, orders plebiscites, and acts as commander in chief of the armed forces. Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14, 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling Naional Democratic Party Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.

Legislature
Egyptian legislation is instituted according to the following hierarchy: the Constitution, Parliament legislation, Presidential decree, Prime Minister's decree, ministerial decision and acts of governors and heads of governmental bodies and public corporations. Laws, Presidential decrees and Decrees of the Prime Minister are published in Egypt's Official Gazette, usually within two weeks of their issuance, and, unless they provide otherwise, they become effective one month from the date of publication. Ministerial decisions as well as other decisions and acts approved for publication are published in the Egyptian Proceedings, a supplement of the Official Gazette. Legislative authority in Egypt is vested in the unicameral, 454-member People’s Assembly. Of the total membership, 444 legislators are elected for five-year terms, of which half must be from the worker and farmer groups and some must be women, and 10 members of the Coptic community are appointed by the president. The People’s Assembly is empowered to approve the budget, make investigations, levy taxes, and approve government programs or withdraw confidence from the cabinet or any of its members. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for all Egyptian citizens age 18 and older.

Judiciary
Judicial authority in Egypt is vested in an independent judicial system, which is based on elements of Islamic, English, and French laws. Until the first half of the 19th century, Egypt, under the leadership of Khedive Ismail and his successors, underwent a rapid process of westernization, which included, inter alia, the adoption of modern codes of law modeled after the French Napoleonic Code. Since that time, Egypt has adopted a more Roman (Civil Law) system, in which matters involving personal status such as marriage, inheritance and divorce were made subject to Islamic substantive law. Currently, the procedural and substantive laws of Egypt are applied throughout the Republic, except in cases of personal status which are decided in accordance with Islamic substantive law in cases involving Muslims whether Egyptians or aliens, Church substantive law in cases involving non-Muslim Egyptians or according to the substantive law of the nation of the litigant parties in cases involving non-Muslim foreigners. The Supreme Constitutional Court is the highest judicial body. Courts of general jurisdiction are divided into four levels. The Court of Cassation renders final judgments in civil and criminal matters and is composed of a president, 41 vice presidents, and 92 justices. Below the Court of Cassation are seven courts of appeal, each with jurisdiction over one or more of Egypt’s governorates. In each governorate is a primary tribunal that hears both civil and criminal cases. At the lowest level are summary tribunals, which are branches of the primary tribunals that are situated in various districts and headed by a single judge. Local Government Egypt is divided into 26 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the president. The governors are aided by councils, of which most of the members are elected. Political Parties From 1961 to 1977 the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) was the only legal political party in Egypt. When a multiparty system was introduced in 1977, the ASU was replaced by several new parties. The number of active political groups grew to 11 by the early 1990s, though political parties must be approved by the government. Laws prohibit the formation of political parties along class lines, which serves to restrict the emergence of some parties, particularly those on the left. In the early 1990s the leading political group was the ruling National Democratic Party. Principal opposition groups were the Socialist Labor Party, the Muslim Brotherhood, and the New Wafd Party. Opposition parties boycotted the 1990 election in an unsuccessful effort to repeal legislation allowing the declaration of states of emergency

POPULATION
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Most Egyptians are descended from the indigenous pre-Muslim population (the ancient Egyptians) and the Arabs, who conquered the area in the 7th century AD. Elements of other conquering peoples (Greeks, Romans, Turks) are also present, especially in Lower Egypt. The mixture has given the inhabitants of the Nile Valley physical characteristics that set them apart from the other Mediterranean peoples of the region. The Nubians, an indigenous people, are an important minority group in Egypt. The Nubians lived in villages along the Nile in southern Egypt and northern Sudan for thousands of years. However, the formation of Lake Nasser inundated many of these villages.The proportion of the population living in rural areas is decreasing as people move to the cities seeking employment and a higher standard of living. Some 45 percent of the Egyptian population lives in urban areas. Nomadic and seminomadic herders, mostly Bedouins, continue to live in the desert regions.

Population Characteristics
The population of Egypt is 78 million. Almost 99 percent of the population lives within the Nile Valley and delta, which constitutes less than 4 percent of Egypt’s total area. While the overall population density for the country is 66 persons per sq km (171 per sq mi), the Nile Valley and delta are among the most densely populated regions in the world, with about 1,900 persons per sq km (about 4,900 per sq mi).

RELIGION
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Islam is the official religion, and 94 percent of all Egyptians are Muslims, most of them members of the Sunni sect. According to official Egyptian estimates, the Coptic Orthodox church, a Christian denomination, has no more than 3 million adherents and constitutes the largest religious minority; Copts themselves claim some 7 million members. An estimated 1 million people belong to the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian, and various Protestant churches. The country has a very small Jewish community.

LANGUAGE
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The official language of Egypt is Arabic, though with an Egyptian dialect. Berber is spoken in a few villages in the western oases. French and English are common second languages among the educated. Today, Arabic ranks as the sixth most common language with an estimated 186 million native speakers. Furthermore, as the language of the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, it is also widely understood throughout the Muslim world, even in countries where Arabic is not the native language. The Egyptian colloquial Arabic is spoken by some 50 million people, mostly in Egypt. One need not learn an extensive amount of Arabic to function in Egypt outside of the confines of the tourist industry. Understanding some useful words and phrases will go a long way.

Basic Arabic phrases:

• Mar aba--Hello!
• Yaa... --Hey! (used only with person's name or title)
• Anaa--I
• Anta--(also Inta)--you, masculine singular
• Anti (also Inti)--you, feminine singular
• Huwa--he
• Hiya--she
• Ismii.... --My name is...
• Maa ismak? What is your name? (to a male)
• Maa ismik? What is your name? (to a female)
• Ustaath--male teacher
• Ustaathah--female teacher
• Tilmiith--Male student, pupil. (elementary/middle school)
• Tilmiithah--Female student, pupil.
• Taalib--Male student (high school or college)
• Taalibah--Female student
• Madrasah--School
• Jaamicah--University
• Min--from
• Ayna--Where?
• Min ayna anti? Where are you (f) from?
• Min ayna huwa? Where is he from?
• Anaa min Philadelphia--I am from Philadelphia.
• Hiya min Lubnan--She is from Lebanon.
• Man?--Who?
• Man Hiya?--Who is she?
• Man huwa?--Who is he?
• Huwa Ustaath fii Jaamicat Pennsylvania.--He is a professor at U. Penn.
• Hiya tilmiithah fii Madrasat Turner.--She is a student at Turner School.
• abaa al-Khayr--Good Morning! (Morning of Goodness!)
• abaa an-Nuur--(response) And Good Morning to you! (Morning of Light!)
• Masaa' al-Khayr--Good Afternoon/Evening!
• Masaa' an-Nuur--(response) And Good Afternoon to you!
• Kayf--How?
• al- aal--the situation or condition
• Kayf al- aal?--How are you?
• Bi-khayr--Fine, good, well
• Anaa bi-khayr--I'm fine.
• al- amdu li-Llah!--God be praised! (said in response to question How are you?)
• Wa anti/anta?--and you?

EDUCATION
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Primary and secondary education is free, as are public universities and technical schools. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14. Graduates of the primary schools may attend either a general intermediate school, which prepares for a secondary education, or a technical intermediate school specializing in industrial and agricultural subjects. The secondary school system is similarly divided into general schools, with curricula designed to prepare students for a university education, and technical schools. Primary and Secondary Schools In 1996 nearly all primary school-age children were enrolled in school. Secondary school enrollment was 75 percent, including vocational and teacher training schools.

Universities and Colleges
Egypt has 13 state universities. Al Azhar University at Cairo, founded in AD 970 as a school of Islamic studies, enrolls about 90,000 students and is the oldest continually existing institution of higher learning in the world. Faculties of engineering, medicine, business administration, and agriculture were added in 1961, and women were first admitted in 1962. Ayn Shams University (1950) in Cairo has 100,000 students, and the University of Cairo (1908) has nearly 77,000 students. Other leading universities include the University of Alexandria (1942), the University of Asyup (1957), and the American University in Cairo (1919). Egypt also has many technical colleges and institutes of art and music.

CULTURE
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The Ministry of Culture directs cultural activities in Egypt. The country has various cultural facilities, including the Pocket Theater, the National Puppet Theater, the Opera House, and the National Symphony. Since the early 1960s there has been a growing interest in folk dancing, which is performed by two national dance groups. Egypt is the principal filmmaking country in the Arab world, with a state-operated cinema corporation and numerous private film companies. Among the many outstanding museums in Cairo is the Egyptian Museum, also known as the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, which houses a vast collection of relics and artifacts from almost every period of ancient Egypt.

Latest archeological discover:
On 27 November 2007 a Russian archeological team found a 2,000-year-old family tomb containing three well-preserved mummies from the Ptolemaic era. The wooden coffins were ornamented with colored paintings and carved with hieroglyphs, recounting the family's story. A man, probably the head of the family, was buried with a gold-plated mask. The remains will be x-rayed to establish the man's true age and to reconstruct his appearance. The tomb also contained 1.4-meter coffin made of compressed papyrus. Judging by the illustrations adorning the coffin, it contains a mummy of a child, probably a girl, but researchers have decided not to open it 'in the field'. A mummy of an old woman with well-preserved hair has also aroused interest, as well as a tomb of a baby, buried with mummified dogs, cats, monkeys and ibises (long-legged wading birds). The Culture of Egypt has five thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations. For millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, for a time Christianity, and later, Arab and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture.

Egyptian Literature.
The ancient Egyptians wrote their stories on papyrus as well as walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks and more. Perhaps the best known example of ancient Egyptian literature is the Story of Sinuhe; other well known works include the Westcar Papyrus and the Ebers papyrus, as well as the famous Book of the Dead. While most literature in ancient Egypt was so-called "Wisdom literature" (that is, literature meant for instruction rather than entertainment), there also existed myths, stories and biographies solely for entertainment purposes. The autobiography has been called the oldest form of Egyptian literature. The Nile had a strong influence on the writings of the ancient Egyptians, as did Greco-Roman poets who came to Alexandria to be supported by the many patrons of the arts who lived there, and to make use of the resources of the Library of Alexandria. Many great thinkers from around the ancient world came to the city, including Callimachus of Libya and Theocritus of Syracuse. Not all of the great writers of the period came from outside of Egypt, however; one notable Egyptian poet was Apollonius of Rhodes.

1. Christian Egyptian literature
Alexandria would also go onto become an important center in early Christianity during roughly the 1st to 4th century CE. The Nag Hammadi library and other Coptic works have become important sources for Christian literature of the period that would have otherwise been lost to history.

2. Islamic Egyptian literature
By the eighth century Egypt had been conquered by the Muslim Arabs. Literature, and especially libraries, thrived under the new Egypt brought about by the Muslim conquerors. Several important changes occurred during this time which affected Egyptian writers. Papyrus was replaced by cloth paper, and calligraphy was introduced as a writing system. Also, the focus of writing shifted almost entirely to Islam.

3. Modern Egyptian literature
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Arab world experienced a al-Nahda, a Renaissance-esque movement which touched nearly all areas of life, including literature. One of the most important figures from this time was Naguib Mahfouz, the first Egyptian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1914 Muhammad Husayn Haykal wrote Zaynab, considered the first modern Egyptian as well as Islamic novel.

4. Notable Egyptian writers
Taha Husayn, Yūsuf Idrīs, Sonallah Ibrahim, Tawfiq al-Hakim, Gamal, Abdel Nasser

Egyptian music and dance
Egyptian music has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since ancient times. The ancient Egyptians credited the god Thoth with the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilize the world. The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predyanstic period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes and double clarinets were played. Percussion instruments, lyres and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom.

Cymbals frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music including the traditional Sufi zikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments. In general, modern Egyptian music blends these indigenous traditions with Turkish, Arabic, and Western elements. Arabic music is usually said to have begun in the 7th century in Syria during the Umayyad dynasty. Early Arabic music was influenced by Byzantine, Indian and Persian forms, which were themselves heavily influenced by earlier Greek, Semitic, and ancient Egyptian music. The tonal structure of Arabic music is defined by the maqamat loosely similar to Western modes, while the rhythm of Arabic music is governed by the awzan (wazn, sing) formed by combinations of accented and unaccented beats and rests. Since the 1970s, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, particularly among the large youth population of Egypt. Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other traditional festivities. In the last quarter of the 20th century, Egyptian music was a way to communicate social and class issues.

Among some of the most popular Egyptian pop singers today are Mohamed Mounir and Amr Diab. Religious music remains an essential part of traditional Muslim and Coptic celebrations called mulids. Mulids are held in Egypt to celebrate the saint of a particular mosque or church. Muslim mulids are related to the Sufi zikr ritual. The Egyptian flute, called the ney, is commonly played at mulids. The liturgical music of the Coptic Church also constitutes an important element of Egyptian music and is said to have preserved many features of ancient Egyptian music. Belly dance, or Raqs Sharqi in Arabic, may have originated in Egypt, and today the country is considered the international center of the art.

Cinema
Egyptian cinema is a flourishing film industry with a long history. As a result, the Egyptian capital has been dubbed the "Hollywood of the Middle East", where the world-renowned Cairo International Film Festival is held every year.

ECONOMY AND TRADE Top of page

International trade
The Egyptian market has been opening up gradually, especially since the EU-Egypt Association Agreement which came into force in June 2004. The top three export partners are: Italy, the USA and Spain. Its top three import partners are: the USA, Germany and China. Egypt mainly exports mineral fuels & oils, cotton, and iron & steel; while as it mainly imports consumer electronic and capital goods, nuclear reactors and boilers, cereals, food products, and chemicals.

Market Spotlight:
Egypt’s economic liberalization program and wide ranging reforms resulted in strong and broad-based growth. The outlook is equally encouraging. The current five-year plan (for the period 2006/07-10/11) aims to GDP growth rate of 8% a year, which is very ambitious; GDP growth rate of 6% is more realistic. New gas discoveries are encouraging. Investment in infrastructure is set to continue. Confidence has encouraged private spending and has attracted strong FDI inflows from the Gulf countries (GCC). The sale of state assets has kept the fiscal position in check because any substantial cuts in subsidies would be met by major popular protests. The services industry has not fully met job creation needs. Inflationary pressures have to be addressed. The Egyptian pound has been stable. The external accounts have strengthened with larger exports and invisibles receipts. But, this outcome could be challenged in future years, as reforms implemented so far, have been designed to ease imports.

Recent performance:
Egypt’s strong performance has reflected ongoing reforms, strong capital inflows and a surge in gas output. The government is expected to pursue its economic program that has resulted in robust growth, which is in their view, the best course to raise living standards and undercut the Islamists' appeal. Nevertheless, the government is expected to be more cautious about potentially painful reforms, such as streamlining public administration. The government remains concerned about its ability to transform a positive macroeconomic situation into tangible benefits for ordinary Egyptians. Job creation, while starting to have an impact, is still insufficient to curb massive (and under reported) unemployment. The plan that covers the period of 2007 through 2011 is targeting a GDP growth rate of 8% a year. However, GDP growth rate averaging 6% a year is more realistic in view of the country’s bottlenecks. High inflation, with prices rising faster than salaries, will be the key socioeconomic challenge.

Fiscal policy:
Inflation, which by the end of 2006 had risen to 11.8%, resulted from an outbreak of bird flu and adjustment in some administrated prices. The general government fiscal balance has shown a large deficit of roughly 8% of GDP a year. Nevertheless, the overall fiscal deficit has been reduced to more manageable levels through tax reforms and the sale of state assets – such as Telecom Egypt and Verta Paper Manufacturing Company. Large fiscal deficits led to a (net) public sector debt equivalent to more than 70% of GDP, excluding deposits (blocked accounts) in the central bank for repayments on Paris Club rescheduled debt are excluded. Tariffs have been reduced and interest rates may increase, but it may not be sufficient to keep inflation single digit. Progress has been made towards the introduction of a full inflation-targeting regime.

Banking sector:
There has been further rationalization in the banking sector (the number of commercial banks cut from 57 to 39) and Bank Alexandria has been privatized. Even though the Central Bank has implemented a series of reforms, it is not independent. More than 60% of financial sector is controlled by the state. It has suffered from political interference, bad management and an economic slowdown since the late 1990s. Non-performing loans exceed 20-25% of total loans. S&P put the figure at 35-50%, but the sale of Bank Alexandria should improve data. The government has reduced capital requirements in the hope to encourage private sector business.

Outlook:
Egypt is benefiting from oil windfalls and the floating pound, but the fiscal reform remains an outstanding issue. The sale of state assets delays the civil service reform. Over the medium-term, the overriding issue is to achieve strong growth to create employment Moreover, subsidy and bureaucratic reform will remain contentious.

INTERNAL INCOME
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1. Agriculture
Egypt is predominantly an agricultural country, with about 40 percent of the labor force engaged in crop farming, herding, or fishing. The pattern of land ownership was greatly altered by the Agricultural Reform Decree of 1952, which limited individual holdings to about 80 hectares (about 200 acres), a figure revised in 1961 to about 40 hectares (about 100 acres), and revised again to about 20 hectares (about 50 acres) in 1969. Lands requisitioned by the government were distributed to the fellahin (peasants), but an economic gap still remains between the middle-class farmers and the fellahin. Government programs have expanded arable areas through reclamation, irrigation (notably since the completion of the Aswân High Dam in 1970), and the use of advanced technology (fertilizers, mechanized equipment). The yields of Egyptian farmlands are now among the highest in the world. Egypt is one of the world’s leading producers of long-staple (long-fibered) cotton. Annual cotton lint production in 1998 was about 850,000 metric tons. Warm weather and plentiful water permit as many as three crops a year, giving Egypt abundant agricultural yields.

2. Fishing
Egypt has a significant fishing industry. In 1996 the annual catch was 309,576 metric tons. Among the most productive areas are the shallow deltaic lakes, Birkat Qârûn, and the Red Sea. The formerly productive sardine fisheries along the Mediterranean coast have been greatly depleted since the construction of the Aswân High Dam. A fishing industry is being developed in Lake Nasser.

3.Mining
Crude petroleum, which accounts for 48 percent of export earnings, is the most important mineral product of Egypt. Production was about 26.4 million barrels annually in the early 1960s. As a result of the discovery in the 1950s and 1960s of large new fields in the Al ‘Alamayn and Gulf of Suez areas, and a major exploration effort in the 1970s, annual production of crude petroleum increased to 313 million barrels in 1997. Proven reserves stood at 6.2 billion barrels in 1992 as Egypt renewed exploration, signing 12 agreements with foreign companies to drill new wells. The country is encouraging natural gas production to supply domestic energy needs, with annual extraction in 1997 of 13.5 billion cu m (477 billion cu ft). Other important products of the mining industry in the early 1990s included phosphate rock (1.5 million metric tons), iron ore (1.2 million tons metal content), and salt (1.1 million tons). Uranium ore began to be mined near Aswân in 1991.

4.Manufacturing
Initial moves toward industrialization in Egypt in the 19th century were frustrated by the European powers, primarily Britain, which preferred to have the country remain a market for their manufactured goods. During and after World War I (1914-1918), new efforts resulted in the development of a small industrial base capable of meeting some of the domestic demand. During World War II (1939-1945), this base was greatly expanded, especially in the area of textiles. After the overthrow of the monarchy in the early 1950s, the government assigned top priority to industrial expansion. In 1965, after the completion of the first five-year plan, the total value of industrial production, including electric power and mining output, had reached some $2.71 billion annually, and by 1997 the value of manufacturing and mining was 32 percent of gross domestic product.

Leading branches of the manufacturing sector are processed food, refined petroleum, textiles, and chemicals. Important products of Egyptian industry include cotton yarn, jute yarn and fabrics, wool yarn, raw sugar, sulfuric acid, nitrogenous fertilizers, paper, cement, motor-vehicle tires and tubes, and televisions. Other industrial activities included the manufacture of iron and steel (at Ḩulwân), motor vehicle assembly, and oil refining (at several locations). These and other industries employ 22 percent of the labor force. Smaller-scale industrial enterprises of significance to the economy include tanning, brewing, and the manufacture of pottery, perfumes, handicrafts, cottonseed oil, flour and other processed foodstuffs, and asphalt. Most industrial activity is centered around Cairo and Alexandria.

5.Energy
Before 1970 most of the electrical power produced in Egypt was generated by thermal plants. The 12 turbines on the Aswân High Dam, completed in 1970, dramatically increased the country’s total installed capacity.

6.Tourism

• Egypt leads the growth in the Middle East region with 25% market share.
• The number of tourists in Egypt almost doubled between 2001/02 to 2005/06 .
• International Tourist Arrivals reached 8.1 million, with a growth rate of 34.1 % comparing with 2003. (Source: WTO)
• The total growth during the period 2001-2004 is 88.37%, while average annual growth rate was 22.09%. (Source: Ministry of Tourism)
• International Tourist Nights in 2004 reached 81.667 million nights, 53% more than 2003. (Source: Ministry of Tourism)
• Tourists' average length of stay was 10.1 night in 2004 compared with 8.7 night in 2003.
• International Tourism Receipts in 2004 reached 6.120 billion US$ an increase of 1.45 billion US$ comparing with 2003. (Source: the Egyptian Central Bank)
• The direct and indirect impact for tourism on GDP represents 11.3 %.
• Tourism effects on employment reach 12.6 % of the Egyptian labour force.
• Tourism is the number one contributor to the economy: 22.1 % of Egypt's foreign exchange earnings. Investments in the tourism sector:
• Number of companies increased from 86 companies in 1994 to 1352 companies in June 2003. (source: GAFI)
• Tourism companies employ a total of 184 448 people. (source: GAFI)
• Number of hotels and touristic villages increased from 752 in 1995 to 909 in 2004. (source: IDSC)

Egypt 2020 Vision:

• WTO 2020 Vision forecasts that Egypt will remain the region’s largest tourist receiving country with over 17 million international tourist arrivals (ITA)
• The expected growth rate in ITA for the period 1995-2020 is above the average for ME region and world, at 7.4 %. (source: WTO)
• Strongest growth is expected from European generating markets of France, Germany and Italy. (Source: WTO)

CURRENCY AND BANKING
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Currency in Egypt is the Egyptian pound. 100 piastres equal one Egyptian pound (£E). Notes range from 25 piastres up to a 1,000 pound notes. The most commonly found notes will be 1,5,10, 20 and 50 Egyptian pound notes, while coins are rarely used as their worth is so small.

The banking system comprises 39 state owned commercial banks. This includes 28 commercial banks, four of which are state-owned, 26 investment banks (11 joint venture banks and 15 branches of foreign banks), and three specialized banks. Although private and joint venture banks are growing, many remain relatively small with few branch networks.

Currency:

• Egyptian Pound Flexible exchange rate
• 1 Sterling pound: 10.80EGP
• 1 Euro: 8.00EGP
• 1 US$: 5.50EGP

Egypt’s banking system has undergone major reforms since the 1990s and today we are faced with a liberalized and modernized system which is supervised and regulated according to internationally accepted standards. The Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) has improved the Egyptian banking systems in the following ways:

• 1.Introduction of laws giving more independence to the CBE, and an electronic signature law
• 2.Regulation of connected and related party lending
• 3.Management reforms of the four public sector banks, making clear the responsibilities of managers and boards of directors
• 4.Development of an automated credit risk information system (CRIS), from which participants would be able to gain online access to clients' credit profiles.

However, Egyptian banks are still behind other Western banks in supplying a good range of mortgage products to their clients. Although this is soon to change, the mortgage market is underdeveloped in Egypt and as yet foreigners cannot yet obtain a mortgage for a property in Egypt. In the near future, a new mortgage law will enable purchasers to take out property loans. This will open up the market considerably and create a storm of development and real estate activity in the near future. Bank opening times are 8.30am to 2pm daily, closed Fridays, Saturdays and most holidays. You will also be able to change money easily at big hotels and cruise boats. You will receive an official receipt when exchanging money and this should be kept for possible inspection. Cash point machines are also available where you can withdraw cash.

TRANSPORTATION
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There is a variety of good options for getting to Egypt, with good connections between Cairo and the Red Sea holiday destinations and many European cities. Domestic air travel is clearly the quickest way to get around and is inexpensive, although Egypt has a good system of public and private transport which includes buses, trains, boats, and even camels, donkeys and horses!

1.By Rail
Egypt has 4,810 km (2,989 mi) of rail all of which are state owned connects just about every town in the country. The principal line links Aswân and points north in the Nile Valley to Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast. The journey between Cairo and Alexandria takes approximately 2½ hours by regular train and almost 2 hours by the turbine engine train or the Spanish one. Cairo to Luxor takes approximately 10 hours.

2. By Road
Two highways connect Cairo with Alexandria. Other highways connect Cairo to Port Said, Suez, and Al Fayyûm. The total length of highways and roads is 64,000 km (39,768 mi). There are other connections to Egypt from elsewhere in Africa and the Middle East which includes the bus from Israel via the Gulf of Aqaba or the southern edge of the Gaza Strip. The journey time from Cairo to Alexandria by bus or car is about 2½ hours, to Suez and Ismailia is about 1½ hours and Port Said (free trade zone) about 2½ hours. Cars drive on the right in Egypt; and there is a speed-limit of 100 km per hour on all main roads. Road safety is low and it is not recommended to drive after dark outside the main cities. Taxis are a usual form of transport in towns and cities and are relatively inexpensive and a comfortable ride. Local minibuses are an inexpensive way to travel costing only a few Egyptian pounds to travel a couple of kilometres and they usually congregate at the train and bus stations. Cars can easily be hired from hotels and airports in most Egyptian towns. Not recommended for the fainthearted!

3.By waterway
The inland waterways of Egypt—including the Nile, navigable throughout its course in the country, the approximately 1,600 km (about 1,000 mi) of shipping canals, and the more than 17,700 km (more than 11,000 mi) of irrigation canals in the Nile delta—are used extensively for transportation. Camel caravans are employed to a limited extent in the desert.

4. By sea
The major port is Alexandria, followed by Port Said and Suez, all of which are served by numerous shipping companies. The Suez Canal, which was closed from 1967 until mid-1975, produces substantial annual toll revenues. In the early 1990s about 16,600 vessels used the canal each year. Ferries arrive from Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.

5.By air
International airlines provide regular services between Cairo, Luxor, Hurgada, Sharm El Sheikh, Marsa Alam, Alexandria and major world centers. Egypt-Air, the government-owned airline, also provides domestic and foreign services. There are frequent direct services operated by British Airways and EgyptAir between London Heathrow and Cairo International Airport. Generally, foreign airlines use Terminal 3 at Cairo International airport, whereas the majority of EgyptAir flights arrive at and depart from Terminal 1 at Cairo International Airport. The charter airlines also service Egypt's tourism destination. From the UK to Sharm El Sheikh there are more than 10 airlines flying from all major airports, 3 airlines flying to Hurghada and 2 flying to Marsa Alam. Transport from the Egyptian airports is provided by a "Limousine service" or Taxi at a fixed price. Taxis, car hire facilities, airlines and bus operators, all provide a means of traveling to and from Cairo, Alexandria, Sharm El Sheikh, Hurghada and Marsa Alam International Airports.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY
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The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many regard as one of the fountainheads of Western culture, cannot be established with certainty. Archaeological evidence suggests that early dwellers in the Nile Valley were influenced by cultures of the Near East, but the degree of this influence is yet to be determined. Describing the development of Egyptian civilization, like attempts to identify its intellectual foundations, is largely a process of conjecture based on archaeological discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and monuments, many of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have provided priceless data. The framework for the study of the Dynastic period of Egyptian history, between the 1st dynasty and the Ptolemaic period, relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a Ptolemaic priest of the 3rd century BC, who organized the country’s rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families.

General agreement exists on the division of Egyptian history, up to the conquest of Alexander the Great, into Old, Middle, and New kingdoms with intermediate periods, followed by the late and Ptolemaic periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of increasingly sophisticated dating techniques.

A Prehistory

Some 60,000 years ago the Nile River began its yearly inundation of the land along its banks, leaving behind rich alluvial soil. Areas close to the floodplain became attractive as a source of food and water. In time, climatic changes, including periods of aridity, further served to confine human habitation to the Nile Valley, although this was not always true.

From the Chalcolithic period (the Copper age, beginning about 4000 BC) into the early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently used an extended part of the land. In the 7th millennium BC, Egypt was environmentally hospitable, and evidence of settlements from that time has been found in the low desert areas of southern, or Upper, Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered at Nubian sites in modern Sudan.

Enough pottery has been found in Upper Egyptian tombs from the 4th millennium BC (in the Predynastic period) to establish a relative dating sequence. The Predynastic period, which ends with the unification of Egypt under one king, is generally subdivided into three parts, each of which refers to the site at which its archaeological materials were found: Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II and III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded datable archaeological material of apparent cultural continuity but no long-term sequences such as those found in the south.

Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period

Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late Gerzean period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political force that was to become the consolidating element in the first united kingdom of ancient Egypt. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing dates from this period; soon the names of early rulers began to appear on monuments. This period began with a 0 Dynasty, which had as many as 13 rulers, ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC), followed by the 1st and 2nd dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with at least 17 kings. Some of the earliest massive mortuary structures (predecessors of the pyramids) were built at ªaqqârah, Abydos, and elsewhere during the 1st and 2nd dynasties.

The Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five centuries of rule by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. The capital was in the north, at Memphis, and the ruling monarchs held absolute power over a strongly unified government. Religion played an important role; in fact, the government had evolved into a theocracy, wherein the pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both absolute monarchs and, possibly, gods on earth.

A Golden Age

The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and its second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about 2737-2717 BC, emphasized national unity by balancing northern and southern motifs in his mortuary buildings at ªaqqârah. His architect, Imhotep, used stone blocks rather than traditional mud bricks in the complex there, thus creating the first monumental structure of stone; its central element, the Step Pyramid, was Djoser’s tomb. In order to deal with affairs of state and to administer construction projects, the king began to develop an effective bureaucracy. In general, the 3rd Dynasty marked the beginning of a golden age of cultural freshness and vigor. The 4th Dynasty began with King Snefru, whose building projects included the first true pyramid at Dahshor (south of ªaqqârah).

Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom extensive documents remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya and was active in the Sinai. Promoting commerce and mining, he brought prosperity to the kingdom. Snefru was succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops), who built the Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of his reign, that monument not only attests to his power but also indicates the administrative skills the bureaucracy had gained. Khufu’s son Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-2603 BC, introduced the solar element (Ra, or Re) in the royal titulary and the religion. Khafre (or Chephren), another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother to the throne and built his mortuary complex at Giza. The remaining rulers of the dynasty included Menkaure, or Mycerinus, who reigned about 2578-2553 BC; he is known primarily for the smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza. Under the 4th Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a peak in its development, and this high level was generally maintained in the 5th and 6th dynasties.

The splendor of the engineering feats of the pyramids was approximated in every other field of endeavor, including architecture, sculpture, painting, navigation, the industrial arts and sciences, and astronomy; Memphite astronomers first created a solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Old Kingdom physicians also displayed a remarkable knowledge of physiology, surgery, the circulatory system of the body, and antiseptics.

Beginning of Decline

Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with extensive foreign trade and military incursions into Asia, signs of decreasing royal authority became apparent in the swelling of the bureaucracy and the enhanced power of nonroyal administrators. The last king of the dynasty, Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407 BC, was buried at ªaqqârah, with a body of religious spells, called Pyramid Texts, carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber.

Such texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th Dynasty. Several autobiographical inscriptions of officials under the 6th Dynasty indicate the decreasing status of the monarchy; records even indicate a conspiracy against King Pepi I, who reigned about 2395-2360 BC, in which the ruler’s wife was involved. It is believed that during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned about 2350-2260 BC, power may have been in the hands of his vizier (chief minister). Central authority over the economy was also diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes. The nomes (districts) were rapidly becoming individually powerful, as the nomarchs—governors of the districts—were beginning to remain in place rather than being periodically transferred to different nomes.

First Intermediate Period

The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First Intermediate period. As a consequence of internal strife, the reigns of this and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are rather obscure. It is clear, however, that both ruled from Memphis and lasted a total of only 25 years. By this time the powerful nomarchs were in effective control of their districts, and factions in the south and north vied for power.

Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and 10th dynasties, the nomarchs near Heracleopolis controlled their area and extended their power north to Memphis (and even into the delta) and south to Asyûþ (Lycopolis). The rival southern nomarchs at Thebes established the 11th Dynasty, controlling the area from Abydos to Elephantine, near Syene (present-day Aswân). The early part of this dynasty, the first of the Middle Kingdom, overlapped the last part of the 10th.

The Middle Kingdom

Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no longer effective, and regional concerns were openly championed. Egyptian art became more provincial, and no massive mortuary complexes were built. The religion was also democratized, as commoners claimed prerogatives previously reserved for royalty alone. They could, for instance, use spells derived from the royal Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own coffins or tombs.

Reunification

Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally dated to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly begins with the reunification of the land by Mentuhotep II, who reigned 2061-2010 BC. The early rulers of the dynasty attempted to extend their control from Thebes both northward and southward, but it was left to Mentuhotep to complete the reunification process, sometime after 2047 BC. Mentuhotep ruled for more than 50 years, and despite occasional rebellions, he maintained stability and control over the whole kingdom.

He replaced some nomarchs and limited the power of the nomes, which was still considerable. Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary temple at Dayr al Baḩrî incorporated both traditional and regional elements; the tomb was separate from the temple, and there was no pyramid. The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I, was peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and, unlike Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of national unity. Nevertheless, the important Theban god Amon was given prominence over other deities. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nomes, rebuilt the bureaucracy, and educated a staff of scribes and administrators.

The literature was predominantly propaganda designed to reinforce the image of the king as a "good shepherd" rather than as an inaccessible god. During the last ten years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with his son as co-regent. "The Story of Sinuhe," a literary work of the period, implies that the king was assassinated. Amenemhet’s successors continued his programs. His son, Sesostris I, who reigned 1962-1928 BC, built fortresses throughout Nubia and established trade with foreign lands. He sent governors to Palestine and Syria and campaigned against the Libyans in the west. Sesostris II, who reigned 1895-1878 BC, began land reclamation in Al Fayyûm. His successor, Sesostris III, who reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a canal dug at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a standing army (which he used in his campaign against the Nubians), and built new forts on the southern frontier.

He divided the administration into three powerful geographic units, each controlled by an official under the vizier, and he no longer recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet III continued the policies of his predecessors and extended the land reform. A vigorous renaissance of culture took place under the Theban kings. The architecture, art, and jewelry of the period reveal an extraordinary delicacy of design, and the time was considered the golden age of Egyptian literature.

Second Intermediate Period

The rulers of the 13th Dynasty—some 50 or more in about 120 years—were weaker than their predecessors, although they were still able to control Nubia and the administration of the central government.

During the latter part of their rule, however, their power was challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which won control over the delta, but also by the Hyksos, who invaded from western Asia. By the 13th Dynasty there was a large Hyksos population in northern Egypt. As the central government entered a period of decline, their presence made possible an influx of people from coastal Phoenicia and Palestine and the establishment of a Hyksos dynasty. This marks the beginning of the Second Intermediate period, a time of turmoil and disunity that lasted for some 214 years.

The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, maintaining control over the middle and northern parts of the country. At the same time, the 16th Dynasty also existed in the delta and Middle Egypt, but it may have been subservient to the Hyksos. More independence was exerted in the south by a third contemporaneous power, the Theban 17th Dynasty, which ruled over the territory between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who reigned about 1576-1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully, but it was his brother, Ahmose I, who finally subdued them, reuniting Egypt.

The New Kingdom

With the unification of the land and the founding of the 18th Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC) began. Ahmose reestablished the borders, goals, and bureaucracy of the Middle Kingdom and revived its land-reclamation program. He maintained the balance of power between the nomarchs and himself with the support of the military, who were accordingly rewarded. The importance of women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high titles and position of the royal wives and mothers.

The 18th Dynasty Kings

Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full control over his administration—he was co-regent for five years—he began to extend Egypt’s boundaries in Nubia and Palestine. A major builder at Al Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike his predecessors, separated his tomb from his mortuary temple; he began the custom of hiding his final resting place.

Thutmose I continued the advances of the new Imperial Age and emphasized the preeminence of the god Amon. His tomb was the first in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife, succeeded him, marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his claim to the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of his predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir, Thutmose III, was still a child, and so Hatshepsut governed as a regent. Within a year, she had herself crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son ruled jointly. When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon Hatshepsut’s death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and Palestine, which had broken away under joint rule, and then continued to expand his empire.

His annals in the temple at Al Karnak chronicle many of his campaigns. Nearly 20 years after Hatshepsut’s death, he ordered the obliteration of her name and images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC, and Thutmose IV tried to maintain the Asian conquests in the face of growing threats from the Mitanni and Hittite states, but they found it necessary to use negotiations as well as force. Amenhotep III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades, 1386-1349 BC, and art and architecture flourished during his reign.

He maintained the balance of power among Egypt’s neighbors by diplomacy. His son and successor, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was a religious reformer who fought the power of the Amon priesthood. Akhenaton abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see Tall al ‘Amârinah), which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of the sun on which his monotheistic religion centered. The religious revolution was abandoned toward the end of his reign, however, and his son-in-law, Tutankhamun, returned the capital to Thebes. Tutankhamun is known today chiefly for his richly furnished tomb, which was found nearly intact in the Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922. The 18th Dynasty ended with Horemheb, who reigned 1321-1293 BC.

The Ramesside Period

The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned 1293-1291 BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and commander of the army. Reigning only two years, he was succeeded by his son, Seti I, who reigned 1291-1279 BC; he led campaigns against Syria, Palestine, the Libyans, and the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary at Abydos. Like his father, he favored the delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (now Qantir).

One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded him and reigned for nearly 67 years. He was responsible for much construction at Luxor and Al Karnak, and he built the Ramesseum (his funerary temple at Thebes), the rock-cut temples at Abû Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and Memphis. After campaigns against the Hittites, Ramses made a treaty with them and married a Hittite princess.

His son Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC, defeated the Sea Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the Middle East in the 13th century BC, and records tell of his desolating Israel. Later rulers had to contend with constant uprisings by subject peoples of the empire. The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III, had his military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary complex at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death the New Kingdom declined, chiefly because of the rising power of the priesthood of Amon and the army. One high priest and military commander even had himself depicted in royal regalia.

Third Intermediate Period

 The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the north, vied with a line of high priests, to whom they appear to be related, from Thebes, in the south. The rulers of the 21st Dynasty may have been partially Libyan in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty began with Libyan chieftains as kings. As the Libyans’ rule deteriorated, several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact the next two dynasties, the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous with part of the 22nd Dynasty, just as the 25th (Kushite) Dynasty effectively controlled much of Egypt during the latter years of the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.

Late Period

 The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The Kushites ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by the Assyrians in 671 BC. Native rule was reestablished early in the 26th Dynasty by Psamtik I. A resurgence of cultural achievement, reminiscent of earlier epochs, reached its height in the 26th Dynasty.

When the last Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II in 525 BC, the country entered a period of Persian domination under the 27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under the 28th and 29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last one of native rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not listed in Manetho’s chronology, represented the second Persian domination.

The Hellenistic and Roman Periods

 The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the Great in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander appointed Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt, and his Macedonian general, known later as Ptolemy I, to govern the country. Although two Egyptian governors were named as well, power was clearly in the hands of Ptolemy, who in a few years took absolute control of the country.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty

Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of Alexander’s empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied much of Ptolemy’s time, but in 305 BC he assumed the royal title and founded the dynasty that bears his name (see Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great powers of the Hellenistic world, and at various times it extended its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands. Partly because native Egyptian rulers had a reduced role in affairs of state during the Ptolemaic regime, they periodically demonstrated their dissatisfaction by open revolts, all of which were, however, quickly suppressed.

In the reign of Ptolemy VI, Egypt became a protectorate under Antiochus IV of Syria, who successfully invaded the country in 169 BC. The Romans, however, forced Antiochus to give up the country, which was then divided between Ptolemy VI and his younger brother, Ptolemy VIII; the latter took full control upon the death of his brother in 145 BC. The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth and status of Egypt while continually losing territory to the Romans. Cleopatra VII was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic line. In an attempt to maintain Egyptian power she aligned herself with Julius Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, but these moves only postponed the end. After her forces were defeated by Roman legions under Octavian (later Emperor Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.

Roman and Byzantine Rule

For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans controlled Egypt (except for a short time in the 3rd century AD, when it came under the power of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra). They treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and profit and were dependent on its supply of grain to feed their multitudes. Roman Egypt was governed by a prefect, whose duties as commander of the army and official judge were similar to those of the pharaohs of the past. The office, therefore, was one with which the native population was familiar.

Because of the immense power of the prefects, however, their functions were eventually divided under Emperor Justinian, who in the 6th century AD put the army under a separate commander, directly responsible to him. Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its southern boundary at Aswân was only rarely attacked by the Ethiopians. Egypt’s population had become Hellenized under the Ptolemies, and it included large minorities of Greeks and Jews, as well as other peoples from Asia Minor.

The mixture of the cultures did not lead to a homogeneous society, and civil strife was frequent. In 212, however, Emperor Caracalla granted the entire population citizenship in the Roman Empire. Alexandria, the port city on the Mediterranean founded by Alexander the Great, remained the capital as it had been under the Ptolemies. One of the great metropolises of the Roman Empire, it was the center of a thriving commerce between India and Arabia and the Mediterranean countries. It was the home of the great Alexandrian library and museum and had a population of some 300,000 (excluding slaves).

Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not only because of its annual harvest of grain but also for its glass, metal, and other manufactured products. In addition, the trade brought in spices, perfumes, precious stones, and rare metals from the Red Sea ports. Once part of the empire, Egypt was subject to a variety of taxes as well. In order to control the people and placate the powerful priesthood, the Roman emperors protected the ancient religion, completed or embellished temples begun under the Ptolemies, and had their own names inscribed on them as pharaohs; the cartouches of several can be found at Isna, Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae.

The Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis spread throughout the ancient world. Egypt was also an important center of early Christendom and the first one of Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or Monophysite church separated from mainstream Christianity in the 5th century. During the 7th century the power of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire was challenged by the Sassanids of Persia, who invaded Egypt in 616. They were expelled again in 628, but soon after, in 641, the country fell to the Arabs, who brought with them a new religion, Islam, and began a new chapter of Egyptian history.

Egypt Under the Caliphate

Alienated by the religious intolerance and heavy taxation of the Byzantine government, the Coptic Egyptians offered little resistance to their Arab conquerors. A treaty was subsequently signed, by which the Egyptians agreed to pay a poll tax (jizyah) in return for an Arab promise to respect the religious practices, lives, and property of the Copts. Besides the poll tax, the male population, estimated at between 6 and 8 million, paid the kharaj, a tax levied on agricultural land.

Local Government

No changes in the administration were made by the Arabs, who adopted the Byzantine decentralized system of provincial governors reporting to a chief governor, resident in the capital, Alexandria. They did, however, later move the capital to a new, more central location, called Al Fustat ("the tent"), a few miles south of present-day Cairo.

For the next two centuries Egypt was ruled by governors appointed by the caliph, the leader of the Muslim community. In this system, mild and generous rule alternated with severity and religious oppression, depending on the character of the governor appointed, his relationship with the population, and his financial needs. Immigration of Arab tribes and the replacement of the Coptic language by Arabic in all public documents began a slow process of Arabization that was eventually to turn Coptic-speaking Christian Egypt into a largely Muslim and wholly Arabic-speaking country. Coptic became a liturgical language.

Internal Strife

Under the Abbasid caliphs (750-868), governors were appointed for brief periods, and Egypt was plagued by a series of insurrections arising from conflicts between the different sects of Muslims who had settled there: the Sunni, or orthodox majority, and the minority Shia sect.

On several occasions the Copts also rose to protest excessive taxation. Such uprisings were met with repression and persecution by the government. Internal conditions became so bad in the late 8th century that a group of new immigrants from Andalucía allied themselves with an Arab tribe and seized Alexandria, holding it until an army arrived from Baghdâd and exiled them to Crete (Kríti). Insurrections continued to break out among the Arabs, who even defeated a governor and burned his baggage. Rebellions by the Copts continued until Caliph Abdullah al-Mamun led a Turkish army to put down the revolts in 832.

This was a period of ruthless and unscrupulous governors, who abused the population and extorted money from them. The only bulwark against such oppression lay in the chief qadi, the country’s leading Muslim magistrate, who maintained the sacred law—the Sharia—in the face of abuse of power, and helped ease the rapacity of the governors. Despite a predominantly rural population, commercial centers flourished, and Al Fustat grew to become a trading metropolis.

Succeeding Autonomous Dynasties

From 856 onward Egypt was given as an iqta, a form of fief, to the Turkish military oligarchy that dominated the caliphate in Baghdâd. In 868 Ahmad ibn Tulun, a 33-year-old Turk, was sent to the country as governor. A man of ability and education, Tulun ruled wisely and well, but he also turned Egypt into an autonomous province, linked with the Abbasids only by the yearly payment of a small tribute. Tulun built a new city, Al Qiþâ‘î ("the Wards"), north of Al Fustat. Under his benevolent rule Egypt prospered and expanded to annex Syria. Tulun’s dynasty (the Tulunids) ruled for 37 years over an empire that included Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. G1 The Fatimid Caliphate  After the last rule by the Tulunids, the country fell into a state of anarchy.

Its weak and defenseless condition made it an easy prey for the Fatimids, a Shiite dynasty that in 909, rejecting the authority of the Abbasids, had proclaimed their own caliphate in Tunisia and by the mid-10th century controlled most of North Africa. In 969 they invaded and conquered Egypt and subsequently founded a new city, Cairo, north of Al Fustat, making it their capital. See Caliphate.

Al Fustat, however, remained the commercial hub of the country under the Fatimids. It was an impressive, multistoried urban center with an excellent underground sewage system. An Iranian traveler, Nasir-i-Khosrau, who visited Egypt in 1046, marveled at the rich markets and the security of the land. Egypt was then enjoying a period of tranquillity and prosperity. The Fatimids, although Shiites in their beliefs, for the most part coexisted peacefully with the predominantly Sunni population. They founded the oldest university in the world, Al Azhar, and Cairo became a great intellectual center.

The Ayyubid Sultanate

Tranquillity disappeared with later Fatimid rulers, who could not control their unruly regiments of Berber and Sudanese soldiers. A low Nile caused serious famine in 1065. New danger appeared with the First Crusade from western Europe, which established Christian control over Syria and Palestine in the late 1090s. The Fatimid caliphs, by now pawns in the hands of their generals, appealed to Nur ad-Din of Ḩalab (Aleppo), and he sent an army to help them against the Crusaders in 1168. Saladin, one of Nur ad-Din’s generals, was installed as vizier. In 1171 he abolished the Fatimid caliphate, founding the Ayyubid dynasty and restoring Sunni rule to Egypt. Saladin reconquered most of Syria and Palestine from the Crusaders and became the most powerful Middle Eastern ruler of this time. His nephew, Sultan al-Kamil, who reigned 1218-1238, successfully defended Egypt against a Christian attack in 1218-1221, but after his death Ayyubid power declined. The Ninth Crusade, led by Louis IX of France, was repelled in 1249, with the aid of the Mamelukes, slave troops in Ayyubid service. The following year the Mamelukes overthrew the Ayyubids and established their own ruling house.

The Mamelukes

The first Mameluke dynasty, the Bahri, held power as sultans of Egypt until 1382. Hereditary succession was frequently disregarded and the throne usurped by the more powerful emirs (military commanders). Many among them were remarkable rulers, such as Baybars I, who halted the Mongol advance into Syria and Egypt in 1260. Two other Mongol invasions were repelled by the Mamelukes, who also expelled the Crusaders from the region and captured ‘Akko, their last stronghold in Palestine, in 1291.

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the Mameluke realm extended north to the borders of Asia Minor. The age of the Mamelukes was one of extraordinary brilliance in the arts. It was also an age of commercial expansion; Egypt’s spice traders, the Karimi, were merchant princes who vied with the emirs in patronizing the arts. After the death of the last great Bahri sultan, al-Nasir, in 1341, Egypt lapsed into decline. His descendants were mere figureheads who allowed real power to remain in the hands of the emirs.

In 1348 the plague known as the Black Death swept over the land, radically reducing the population. The second dynasty of Mameluke sultans, the Burjis, was of Circassian origin and ruled from 1382 to 1517. Most of the Burji rulers exercised little real authority; their dynasty was marked by continual power struggles among the Mameluke elite. In the midst of rebellion and civil strife, the Mamelukes continued to hold Egypt and Syria by virtue of their ability to repel invasions. By the early 16th century, however, they were threatened by the growing power of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1517 the Ottoman Sultan Selim I invaded Egypt and ruled it.

Ottoman Ascendancy

Although the real hold of the Ottoman Turks over Egypt was to last only until the 17th century, the country remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire until 1915. Rather than exterminate the Mamelukes, the Ottomans used them in their administration. They established a governor and settled six ocaks (regiments) in Egypt as a garrison. In time the roman ocaks intermarried with the native people, playing an important role in the country’s economic and political life. Rural areas were treated as crown lands, parceled into plots called iqta, the produce of which went to the Ottoman elite.

Mameluke Resurgence

As time went on, an inflationary trend that historians have noted in 16th-century Europe had repercussions in Egypt as well. Rising prices led to rivalry among the ocaks over the country’s wealth. This weakened their control, and the Mamelukes stepped into the breach.

By the mid-17th century the Mameluke emirs, or beys, had established their supremacy. Land taxes were farmed out among them, and the urban guilds, which were closely allied with the roman ocaks, were heavily taxed as a means of diminishing Ottoman influence and of increasing revenue. The Ottomans acquiesced in the system so long as the tribute was regularly paid. The period from the 16th to the mid-18th century was an age of commercial prosperity when Egypt, at the crossroads of several commercial routes, was the center of a flourishing intermediary trade in coffee, textiles, and spices. The Ottoman governor quickly became a puppet, first in the hands of the regiments, which held the military power, and then in the hands of the Mamelukes, who came to control the ocaks.

The leading Mameluke bey, called the Shaikh al-Balad ("chief of the city"), thus became recognized as the real ruler of the land. The beys imposed higher taxes to finance their military expeditions in Syria and Arabia. Although defeated in Syria by the Ottomans, who once more sought to reinforce their authority, the Mamelukes dominated Egypt until 1798. The last 30 years of the 18th century were marked by plagues and famine that reduced the population to a bare 4 million.

The Time of Muhammad Ali

The French occupation of Egypt in 1798, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, was a brief interlude, for the French never acquired full dominion or control. The grain-producing regions of Upper Egypt remained in Mameluke hands. Napoleon’s invasion was too short-lived to have any lasting impact, but it marked the beginning of a renewed European interest in Egypt.

In 1801 an Anglo-Ottoman force expelled the French. For the next few years, struggles between Mamelukes and Ottomans for mastery ruined the country until Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman general of Albanian origin, seized power with the cooperation of the local population. In 1805 the Ottoman sultan declared him the governor of Egypt. Muhammad Ali, a man of genius, slowly and methodically destroyed or bought off all his opponents until he became the only source of power in the country. To gain control of all the trade routes into Egypt, he embarked on wars of expansion.

He first conquered Al Ḩijâz (the Hejaz, now in Saudi Arabia) in 1819 and Sudan from 1820 to 1822; by 1824 he was ready to help the Ottoman sultan put down an insurrection in Greece. The European powers, however, intervened to halt Egyptian advances in Greece, and Muhammad Ali was forced to withdraw his army. At home, Muhammad Ali encouraged the production of cotton to supply the textile mills of Europe, and he used the profits to finance industrial projects. He established a monopoly over all commodities and imposed trade barriers to nurture industry. He sent Egyptians abroad for technical education and hired experts from Europe to train his army and build his manufacturing industries (which, however, were never as successful as he hoped they would be). In 1831 Muhammad Ali invaded Syria, thereby coming into conflict with his Turkish overlord.

The Egyptians defeated the Ottoman armies, and by 1833 they were threatening the Turkish capital, Constantinople (present-day Ýstanbul). Once again, Russia, Britain, and France intervened, this time to protect the sultan. Muhammad Ali’s forces withdrew, but he was left in control of Syria and Crete. Egyptian expansion and control over trade routes conflicted with Britain’s growing interest in the Middle East as a market for its burgeoning industrial production. The threat to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire also disturbed Britain and roused fears of Russian encroachment in the Mediterranean.

For these reasons the British opposed Egypt, and when Muhammad Ali again rebelled against the sultan in 1839, they stepped in for the third time to make him back down. He was offered hereditary possession of Egypt, but had to give up his other conquests and remain an Ottoman vassal.

Bankruptcy and Foreign Control

After the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, Egypt came increasingly under European influence. His son, Said Pasha, made some attempt to modernize the government, but left a huge debt when he died. His successor, Ismail Pasha, increased the national debt by borrowing lavishly from European bankers to develop the country and pay for the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869.

These spendthrift rulers drove the country into bankruptcy and ultimately into the control of their British and French creditors. In 1876 an Anglo-French commission took charge of Egypt’s finances, and in 1879 the sultan deposed Ismail in favor of his son Tawfik Pasha. Army officers, disgusted by the government’s weakness, then led a rebellion to end foreign control. Tawfik appealed to the British for help, and they occupied Egypt in 1882.

Egypt Under the British

British interest in Egypt stemmed from the Suez Canal as the short route to India. Promises to evacuate the country once order had been restored were broken, and the British army remained in occupation until 1954. Although Tawfik remained on the throne as a figurehead prince, the British consul general was the real ruler of the country. The first and most important consul general was Sir Evelyn Baring (known after 1892 as Lord Cromer).

A nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kamil, a European-educated lawyer, was backed by Tawfik’s successor, Abbas II, during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Kamil agitated for self-government and an end to the British occupation but was ignored by British authorities. In this period Egyptian agriculture was so completely dominated by cotton grown to feed the textile mills of Lancashire, England, that grain had to be imported to feed the rural population. Irrigation projects were carried out to increase the arable land, and in due course the entire debt to Britain was paid.

British promises to evacuate diminished as Egypt and the Suez Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy. The illegal occupation was, in fact, internationally sanctioned in 1904, when France recognized British rights in Egypt in return for British acknowledgment of French rights in Morocco.

Protectorate Declared

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought nationalist activities in Egypt to an end. When Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany, Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed Abbas II in favor of his uncle, Hussein Kamil, who was given the title of sultan. Legal ties between Egypt and Turkey were finally severed, and Britain promised Egypt some changes in government once the war was over. The war years resulted in great hardship for Egyptian peasants, the fellahin, who were conscripted to dig ditches and whose livestock was confiscated by the army. Inflation was rampant. These factors were responsible for increasing resentment against the British and set the stage for the violent upheaval that was to come after World War I ended in 1918.

The Puppet Monarchy

Allied promises that former Ottoman territories would be allowed self-determination raised hopes in Egypt of independence once the war was over. A new nationalist movement, the Wafd ("delegation"), was formed in 1918 to plan for the country’s future. Hopes were dashed when Britain refused to consider Egyptian needs, and Saad Zaghlul, the leader of the Wafd, was exiled. The country erupted in violent revolt, and Britain was forced to reconsider its decision.

Zaghlul was released, but his efforts to get a hearing at the Paris Peace Conference were thwarted by the British. Violence continued until 1922, when Britain unilaterally declared Egypt an independent monarchy under Hussein’s successor, who became king as Fuad I. The British, however, reserved the right to intervene in Egyptian affairs if their interests were threatened, thereby robbing Egypt of any real independence and allowing British control to continue unabated. The new constitution of 1924 set up a bicameral legislature, but, under pressure from the British and Fuad, gave the latter the right to nominate the premier and to suspend Parliament.

The result was a tripartite struggle for mastery over Egypt involving the king, the British ambassador, and the Wafd, which was the only grass-roots party. One government after another fell after trying unsuccessfully to extract concessions from the British. In 1936, under pressures caused by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, an Anglo-Egyptian treaty was finally signed, but it continued the physical occupation of Egypt by the British army and the involvement of the British army in internal affairs.

The Coup of 1952

World War II (1939-1945) suspended further political bargaining. The war years brought inflation, interparty strife, and disillusion with the Wafd. Fundamentalist religious organizations, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, and Communist groups developed. In 1948 Egypt and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. Blaming the government for its loss, the army turned against King Faruk, Fuad’s son, who showed no aptitude for government and a blatant disregard for public well-being and morality. In 1952 a group of army officers carried out a successful coup d’etat that ousted the king and in 1953 declared Egypt a republic.

The Republican Era

The first president of the republic, General Muhammad Naguib, was a figurehead. The real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser of the Revolutionary Command Council, the officers who had plotted the revolution. In April 1954 Nasser became prime minister. In November of that year, Naguib was removed from power, and Nasser assumed complete executive authority. In July 1956 Nasser was officially elected president.

The Nasser Years

At first Nasser followed a pro-Western policy and successfully negotiated the evacuation of British forces from Egypt in 1954. Soon he turned to a policy of neutrality and solidarity with other African and Asian nations and became an advocate of Arab unity.

The Suez Crisis

In efforts to acquire armaments, which the Western world would not supply to Egypt, Nasser turned to the Eastern bloc. In retaliation, the World Bank rejected Egypt’s request for a loan to finance the Aswân High Dam project.

Nasser therefore nationalized the Suez Canal in July 1956 and sought to use its revenues to finance the dam, precipitating what would be called the Suez crisis. Angered by that move, Britain and France, the main stockholders in the canal, arranged a military operation with Israel. Israel had been planning an attack since 1951, when Egypt began blocking Israeli passage through the Strait of Tiran, denying Israel access to the Red Sea. Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula in October 1956, and British and French forces established control over the Suez Canal within days.

Pressure from the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) forced the three countries to evacuate Egyptian territory, and United Nations (UN) forces were placed as a buffer between Egypt and Israel. Pursuing his dream of Arab unity, Nasser in 1958 effected a union between Egypt and Syria under the name of the United Arab Republic. Although it lasted only three years before the Syrians rebelled and reaffirmed their independence, Egypt retained the official name of the republic for many years afterward.

Arab Socialism

Within Egypt the Nasser regime suppressed political opposition and established a one-party system as a means of reforming political life. A series of decrees limited land ownership and undermined the authority of the landowning elite. In 1961 foreign capital invested in Egypt was nationalized, as were public utilities and local industries, all of which became part of the public sector.

This new order, which Nasser called Arab Socialism, aimed at greater social equality and economic growth. In 1962 a national charter was drawn up, and the official National Union Party was renamed the Arab Socialist Union. Women, who had been emancipated earlier, were elected to the union, as were workers. The first woman cabinet minister was appointed.

Wars of the 1960s

In 1962 Egypt became embroiled in a civil war in Yemen, backing a republican movement against monarchist forces. This venture cost lives and money and left the country weakened. In 1967 Nasser, continuing the Arab struggle against Israel, closed the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping and requested that the UN forces be withdrawn from the border.

The Israelis, believing that Nasser was preparing for war, struck first, attacking and destroying Egyptian airfields and positions in the Sinai. Israeli forces advanced until they reached the right bank of the Suez Canal. This Six-Day War left Israel in possession of the whole Sinai Peninsula. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 242, which emphasized the "inadmissibility of acquiring territory by war" and called for Israeli withdrawal from Occupied Territories. Israel read the resolution as withdrawal from "some territories" and continued to occupy the Sinai.

When negotiations seemed to be leading nowhere, Nasser turned to the USSR, which rearmed Egypt in return for a naval base. Nasser died suddenly in 1970. Problems of succession to the post of president were settled when Vice President Anwar al-Sadat, a long-time colleague of Nasser, was chosen to succeed him.

The Sadat Regime

Sadat was elected by opposing political factions as a compromise candidate, on the assumption that he could be manipulated. The new president, however, outwitted his would-be puppeteers and, with the support of the army, put them under arrest. He freed political prisoners who had been incarcerated by Nasser for opposing his policies, and called for a regime of economic and political liberalization, especially for the press, which Nasser had strictly controlled.

The War of 1973

Skirmishes between Egypt and Israel had continued after 1969, and this "war of attrition" had resulted in high Egyptian casualties and burdensome military expenditures. Sadat tried to find a way out of that impasse by negotiation. Unsuccessful, he secretly planned another round against Israel. He first repaired his fences with the Arab states, especially Saudi Arabia, which financed arms purchases from the Soviet Union.

Then, on October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur and during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, Egypt launched an air and artillery assault across the Suez Canal. Within hours, thousands of Egyptian soldiers had successfully crossed into the Sinai. Protected by a missile umbrella that destroyed Israeli aircraft, they overran and captured the string of Israeli fortifications known as the Bar-Lev line. Israel was caught unprepared. By the middle of the month, however, it had regained the initiative and was able to encircle Egyptian units on the outskirts of Suez. The United Nations then imposed a cease-fire, and an armistice line patrolled by UN forces was eventually established between the Egyptian and the Israeli armies.

Rapprochement with Israel

 Although Egypt did not win the war, it effectively challenged the 1967 boundaries and, helped by the "shuttle diplomacy" of U.S. secretary of state Henry A. Kissinger, regained control of the Suez Canal. Having boosted Egyptian morale, Sadat was ready for negotiations. In 1974 and 1975 Egypt and Israel concluded agreements—again mediated by Kissinger—providing disengagement on the Sinai front. In June 1975 Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, permitting passage to ships carrying Israeli cargoes.

Israel withdrew beyond the strategic passes and from some of the oil fields in the Sinai. Meanwhile, Egypt’s economic position was growing rapidly worse; by early 1976 the country’s debt to the USSR was estimated at $4 billion. The following year, surprising all, Sadat asked the Soviet military advisers to leave the country and threw his lot in with the United States, declaring it held the key to peace in the Middle East. Even more surprising, on November 19, 1977, Sadat flew to Israel and addressed the Knesset (parliament) in a bid for peace. The historic journey was followed by further negotiations under U.S. auspices. At a tripartite conference with U.S. president Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland, in September 1978, Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin agreed on a framework for an Israeli-Egyptian settlement. A peace treaty between the two nations, based on the Camp David Accords, was signed in Washington, D.C., on March 26, 1979.

Sadat’s Assassination

The rest of the Arab world denounced Egypt for making a separate peace with Israel, and some of the more "hard-line" Arab leaders branded Sadat a traitor to the Arab cause. The Sinai was gradually restored to Egypt, but later Egyptian-Israeli talks on a settlement of the Palestinian issue made little progress. Egypt was expelled from the Arab League in 1979 because of the peace treaty, and the league’s headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis, Tunisia. In 1989 Egypt was readmitted to the league; the headquarters were moved back to Cairo the following year.

By 1981 Sadat was meeting increasing opposition within Egypt itself, especially from Muslim fundamentalists, who opposed any accommodation with Israel. Sadat responded with a crackdown, arresting and jailing hundreds of his opponents, and placing restrictions on the press. In such an atmosphere he was assassinated by religious extremists within his own army on October 6, 1981, during a military parade commemorating the 1973 war.

Egypt Under Mubarak

Sadat was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak. While adhering to the Camp David accords, Mubarak sought political liberalization within Egypt as well as improved relations with other Arab states. Israel completed its withdrawal from the Sinai on April 25, 1982. In January 1984 Egypt accepted an invitation to rejoin the 42-member Islamic Conference. That April, in Egypt’s first parliamentary elections under Mubarak, the ruling National Democratic Party captured 87 percent of the vote. After a national referendum in February 1987 authorized the dissolution of the People’s Assembly, new elections were held in April. Although the National Democratic Party won 338 of 448 seats, the Muslim Brotherhood showed increased strength.

President Mubarak was reelected in a referendum in October 1987. After Egypt took part in the U.S.-led coalition that defeated Iraq in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, about half of its $20.2-billion debt to the allies was forgiven, and the rest was rescheduled. In 1992 Muslim fundamentalists began launching violent attacks against government officials, Coptic Christians, tourists, unveiled women, and others in a campaign to replace Mubarak’s government with one based on strict Islamic law.

As a result of the attacks, revenues from tourism dropped 42 percent between 1992 and 1993. The government cracked down severely on the militants, executing 29 of them in 1993. In October 1993 Mubarak won a referendum electing him to a third term as president. In November 1995, just before parliamentary elections, Mubarak’s government accused the Muslim Brotherhood of helping violent Islamic groups. Many of the Muslim Brotherhood’s members were arrested, and several who planned to run in the elections or monitor them were tried and sentenced to prison. Critics accused the government of trying to eliminate even peaceful opponents. In the elections that followed, Mubarak’s National Democratic Party won an overwhelming victory.

TOURIST INFORMATIONTop of page

Passports and Visas
Non-Egyptian visitors arriving in Egypt are required to be in possession of a passport valid for a minimum 6 months period. Entry visas may be obtained from Egyptian Diplomatic and Consular Missions abroad or from the Entry Visa Department at the Travel Documents, Immigration and Nationality Administration (TDINA). It is, however, possible for most tourists and visitors to obtain an entry visa at any of the major ports of entry. Please check with the nearest Egyptian Consulate for specific details and regulations relevant to your nationality.

Egyptian Embassies and Consulates outside Egypt
Although we will be constantly updating the content of our information, it is the responsibility of the surfer and traveller to check that the below regulations are still valid. In case of any doubt please contact the Egyptian Embassy or Consulate in your country. Remember, you will need to carry your passport with you at all times. If you are travelling between Red Sea cities or to a national park in Egypt, it is especially important to have your passport to be able to enter and cross possible check points between cities.

Passports and Identity Cards
All nationalities need a passport with minimum 6 months validity. Upon arrival (or during the flight) they will be asked to fill in a form that will be handed over at the customs desk.

Children
Children must be in possession of their own passport or (for Italian and German citizens) an identity card valid for travel abroad. Alternatively and only in case they are traveling with one of the parents, they can be on the parent’s passport. If the child is more than 10 years old, a recent picture must be on the parents’ passport. Children more than 15 years old cannot be in parent’s passport and need a separate passport. Children need a visa only if they are traveling with their own passport or identity card. We remind you as well that you have to also fulfill any law concerning minors’ expatriation from the country you are leaving from.

Egyptian Visa
Citizens of most nationalities can obtain a tourist visa upon arrival at the airports in Egypt, valid for 30 days and for one single entry. The process is straightforward. You have to buy the visa at the airport before crossing the passport control; the fee varies from 15 to 50 US$ according to your nationality and can not be paid in Egyptian pounds. The visa stamps are stuck to your passport and you can then proceed to the passport control. A pre-arrival visa, which has to be obtained before departure and from the Egyptian Consulate or Embassy nearest to your residence town, is required in the following cases

• If your nationality does not entitle you to a tourist visa upon arrival;
• If you need a multiple tourist visa;
• If you require a visa for purposes other than tourism (e.g. work, study, etc)

To apply for a pre-arrival visa, please contact the nearest Egyptian consulate. For a list of all Egyptian diplomatic missions, click here. Your application requires the following documents

• A passport that is valid for at least another six months
• One passport-sized photograph
• A completed application form

The pre-arrival visa fee depends on your nationality. South African and Sudanese citizens pay no fee; others pay between 20 and 60 US$. It is valid for three months from the date of issue and allows you to stay in Egypt for 30 days from the date of your arrival. The possession of a valid Entry Visa is needed to complete the residence procedure in Egypt. A free Sinai residence permit with fourteen days validity is possible for travellers wishing to visit exclusively the Gulf of Aqaba coast and St. Catherine and entering Egypt at:

• The overland border of Taba or
• Sharm el Sheikh or Taba airports or
• Nuweiba harbour

The free Sinai residence permit does not allow tourists in Sinai to visit the Ras Mohamed National Park, Cairo or Luxor or any other place not located along the Gulf of Aqaba coast; moreover it does not allow travellers to enter the country at Hurghada or Marsa Alam airports, not to dive or to go on live-aboard cruises.

Notes

• Foreigners arriving in Egypt on board cruising ships are granted a permission to visit the port of arrival for 24 hours (transit visa) and catch their ship at the same port. They can also be granted a permission to enter the country for a visit not exceeding a period of 3 days before catching their ship at the port of arrival or at any other port.
• Air passengers transiting in Egyptian airports are allowed entry for a quick trip not exceeding the period of 24 hours (transit visa). In the event of emergency landing, passengers are entitled to enter Egypt for a period of:
  - 24 hours in case of poor weather conditions;
  - 48 hours in case of technical faults to the aircraft.
• Those in possession of a residence permit in Egypt are not required to obtain an entry visa if they leave the country and return to it within the validity of their residence permit or within six months, whichever period is less.

Before you travel:
It is important that you ensure you have the correct travel documents for your journey. It is always important to check that your passport is up to date and any necessary visas obtained, in advance of travel. When making a booking your name must match your name as it appears on your passport or travel document. We cannot accept you for travel unless all your documents match. Passports are required for all international flights and should be valid for at least 3 months beyond the length of stay.

Passengers under the age of 16 who are travelling with an adult on the same booking do not need photographic identification to travel but it is advisable that they have some form of identification eg (birth certificate, bus pass, student ID).

Embassies in Egypt

• AUSTRALIA
• World Trade Center (11th Floor), Corniche El Nil, Boulak (Code No. 11111) Cairo
• Telephone: 570-2975
• Fax: 570-2979

• BELGIUM
• 20, Kamel El Shennawi St., Garden City
• Telephone: 794 74 94 / 5 / 6 Visa 792 59 66
• Fax: 794 31 47

• FINLAND
• 3, Abou El Feda St, Zamalek
• Telephone: 3411487-3413722
• Fax: 3405170

• FRANCE
• 29 Ave. de Chalres de Gaulle BP 1777 - Giza (Guizeh) Cairo
• Telephone: 570-3916
• Fax: 571-0276

• GREECE
• 18, Aisha El Taymouria St., Garden CIty
• Telephone: 3551074-3550443
• Fax: 3563903

• IRELAND
• 3 Abu El Feda St., Zamalek
• Telephone: 3408264-3408547
• Fax: 3412863

• ISRAEL
• 6, Ibn Malek St., Giza
• Telephone: 3610545-3610537
• Fax:

• ITALY
• 15, Abdel Rahman Fahmi St.,Garden City
• Telephone: 3543194-3543195
• Fax: 3540657

• JAPAN
• 2nd, 8th and 9th Floors Cairo Center Building 2 Abdell Kader Hamza St., Garden City Cairo
• Telephone: 795-3962
• Fax: 796-3540

• POLAND
• 5, Aziz Osman St., Zamalek
• Telephone: 3409583
• Fax: 3415483

• PORTUGAL
• 15A, El Mansour Mohamed St., Zamalek
• Telephone: 3405583
• Fax: 3415483

• ROMANIA
• 4, Aizi Abaza St., Zamalek
• Telephone: 3410107
• Fax: 3410851

• RUSSIA
• 95, El Giza St., Giza
• Telephone: 3489353
• Fax: 3609074

• UNITED KINGDOM
• 7 Ahmed Ragheb St. Garden City Cairo
• Telephone: 794-0852
• Fax: 794-3065

• UNITED STATES
• 5 Latin America St. Garden City Cairo
• Telephone: 797-3300
• Fax: 797-3200