Egypt, officially Arab Republic of Egypt, country in northeastern
Africa and southwestern Asia. It is bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean Sea, on the east by Israel and the Red Sea, on the
south by Sudan, and on the west by Libya. The country has a maximum
length from north to south of about 1,085 km (about 675 mi) and
a maximum width, near the southern border, of about 1,255 km (about
780 mi). It has a total area of 997,739 sq km (385,229 sq mi). Cairo
is the capital and largest city.
The land of the Nile River, Egypt is the cradle of one of the
world’s greatest ancient civilizations and has a recorded history
that dates from about 3200 BC. The descriptive material that follows
is pertinent to modern Egypt. The History section covers Egypt from
ancient times, including the Dynastic Period (3200 BC-343 BC), the
Hellenistic Period (332 BC-30 BC), Roman and Byzantine Rule (30
BC-AD 638), the Caliphate and the Mamelukes (642-1517), Ottoman
Domination (1517-1882), and British colonialism (1882-1952) as well
as modern, independent Egypt (1952- ).
Less than one-tenth of the land area of Egypt is settled or under
cultivation. This territory consists of the valley and delta of
the Nile, a number of desert oases, and land along the Suez Canal.
More than 90 percent of the country consists of desert areas, including
the Libyan Desert in the west, a part of the Sahara, and the Arabian
Desert (also called the Eastern Desert), which borders the Red Sea
and the Gulf of Suez, in the east. The Libyan Desert (also known
as the Western Desert) includes a vast sandy expanse called the
Great Sand Sea. Located here are several depressions with elevations
below sea level, including the Qattara Depression, which has an
area of about 20,000 sq km (about 7,722 sq mi) and reaches a depth
of 133 m (436 ft) below sea level; also found here are the oases
of Siwa, Khârijah, Baḩrîyah, Farafra, and Dakhla. Much of the
Arabian Desert occupies a plateau that rises gradually east from
the Nile Valley to elevations of about 600 m (about 2,000 ft) in
the east and is broken along the Red Sea coast by jagged peaks as
high as about 2,100 m (about 7,000 ft) above sea level. In the extreme
south, along the border with Sudan, is the Nubian Desert, an extensive
region of dunes and sandy plains. The Sinai Peninsula consists of
sandy desert in the north and rugged mountains in the south, with
summits looming more than about 2,100 m (about 7,000 ft) above the
Red Sea. Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrînah) (2,637 m/8,652 ft), the
highest elevation in Egypt, is in the Sinai Peninsula, as is Mount
Sinai (Jabal Mosá), where, according to the Old Testament, Moses
received the Ten Commandments.
The Nile enters Egypt from Sudan and flows north for about 1545
km (about 960 mi) to the Mediterranean Sea. For its entire length
from the southern border to Cairo, the Nile flows through a narrow
valley lined by cliffs. Lake Nasser, a huge reservoir formed by
the Aswân High Dam, extends south across the Sudan border. The
lake is about 480 km (about 300 mi) long and is 16 km (10 mi) across
at its widest point. About two-thirds of the lake lies in Egypt.
South of a point near the town of Idfû, the Nile Valley is rarely
more than 3 km (2 mi) wide. From Idfû to Cairo, the valley averages
23 km (14 mi) in width, with most of the arable portion on the western
side. In the vicinity of Cairo the valley merges with the delta,
a fan-shaped plain, the perimeter of which occupies about 250 km
(about 155 mi) of the Mediterranean coastline. Silt deposited by
the Rosetta (Arabic Rashid), Damietta (Arabic Dumyat), and other
distributaries has made the delta the most fertile region in the
country. However, the Aswân High Dam has reduced the flow of the
Nile, causing the salty waters of the Mediterranean to erode land
along the coast near the Nile. A series of four shallow, brackish
lakes extends along the seaward extremity of the delta. Another
larger lake, Birkat Qârûn, is situated inland in the desert north
of the town of Al Fayyûm. Geographically and traditionally, the
Nile Valley is divided into two regions, Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt,
the former consisting of the delta area and the latter comprising
the valley south of Cairo.
Although Egypt has about 2,450 km (1,520 mi) of coastline, two-thirds
of which are on the Red Sea, indentations suitable as harbors are
confined to the delta. The Isthmus of Suez, which connects the Sinai
Peninsula with the African mainland, is traversed from the Mediterranean
to the Gulf of Suez by the Suez Canal.
The climate of Egypt is characterized by a hot season from May
to September and a cool season from November to March. Extreme temperatures
during both seasons are moderated by the prevailing northern winds.
In the coastal region average annual temperatures range from a maximum
of 37° C (99° F) to a minimum of 14° C (57° F). Wide variations
of temperature occur in the deserts, ranging from a maximum of 46°
C (114° F) during daylight hours to a minimum of 6° C (42° F)
after sunset. During the winter season desert temperatures often
drop to 0° C (32° F). The most humid area is along the Mediterranean
coast, where the average annual rainfall is about 200 mm (about
8 in). Precipitation decreases rapidly to the south; Cairo receives
on average only 26 mm (1 in) of rain a year, and in many desert
locations it may rain only once in several years.
Egypt has a wide variety of mineral deposits, some of which, such
as gold and red granite, have been exploited since ancient times.
The chief mineral resource of contemporary value is petroleum, found
mainly in the Red Sea coastal region, at Al ‘Alamayn (El ‘Alamein)
on the Mediterranean, and in the Sinai Peninsula. Other minerals
include phosphates, manganese, iron ore, and uranium. Natural gas
is also extracted.
The vegetation of Egypt is confined largely to the Nile delta,
the Nile Valley, and the oases. The most widespread of the few indigenous
trees is the date palm. Others include the sycamore, tamarisk, acacia,
and carob. Trees that have been introduced from other lands include
the cypress, elm, eucalyptus, mimosa, and myrtle, and various types
of fruit trees. The alluvial soils of Egypt, especially in the delta,
sustain a broad variety of plant life, including grapes, many kinds
of vegetables, and such flowers as the lotus, jasmine, and rose.
In the arid regions alfa grass and several species of thorn are
common. Papyrus, once prevalent along the banks of the Nile, is
now limited to the extreme south of the country. Because of its
arid climate Egypt has few indigenous wild animals. Gazelles are
found in the deserts, and the desert fox, hyena, jackal, wild ass,
boar, jerboa, and ichneumon inhabit various areas, mainly the delta
and the mountains along the Red Sea. Among the reptiles of Egypt
are lizards and several kinds of poisonous snakes, including the
asp and the horned viper. The crocodile and hippopotamus, common
in the lower Nile and Nile delta in antiquity, are now restricted
to the upper Nile. Birdlife is abundant, especially in the Nile
delta and Nile Valley.
The country has approximately 300 species of birds, including
the sunbird, golden oriole, egret, hoopoe, plover, pelican, flamingo,
heron, stork, quail, and snipe. Birds of prey found in Egypt include
eagles, falcons, vultures, owls, kites, and hawks. Many species
of insects are found in Egypt—beetles, mosquitoes, flies, and
fleas being especially numerous; scorpions are found in desert areas.
About 100 species of fish can be found in the Nile and in the deltaic
lakes.
General
A basic understanding of Egyptian law requires some knowledge of
the origin and basis of Egyptian jurisprudence. Egyptian legislation
can be traced to three major sources: Napoleonic Code, Roman law
and Islamic law (Shar'ia). Egypt is a constitutional democracy based
on the principle of separation of powers between the legislative,
the executive and the judicial branches. The 1971 Constitution of
Egypt, as amended by the referendum of May 22, 1980, is premised
upon respect for individual freedoms and for the rule of law. The
Constitution is the supreme law of the land and provides for an
independent judicial branch. Judges are subject to no other authority
but that of the law; they serve until the age of sixty-four, until
which time their jobs are secured.
Political Divisions and Principal Cities
Egypt is divided for administrative purposes into 26 governorates.
The capital and largest city is Cairo; other important cities include
Alexandria, the principal port; Giza, an industrial center near
Cairo; Port Said, at the Mediterranean entrance to the Suez Canal;
and Suez, the southern terminus of the canal.
Government
Egypt is governed by a constitution promulgated on September 11,
1971. The constitution provides for an Arab socialist state with
Islam as the official religion. It also stresses social solidarity,
equal opportunity, and popular control of production. Executive
The head of state is the president of the republic, who is nominated
by the People’s Assembly and elected by popular referendum. The
president is elected for a six-year term and has the power to formulate
general state policy and supervise its execution. This official
can dissolve the People’s Assembly, appoint and dismiss the Prime
Minister and other cabinet ministers, attend cabinet meetings, and
issue decrees during emergencies, but such measures must be approved
by referendum within 60 days. Also, the president declares war after
approval by the People’s Assembly, ratifies treaties, commutes
penalties, orders plebiscites, and acts as commander in chief of
the armed forces. Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953.
President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic
since October 14, 1981, following the assassination of former-President
Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth
term in office. He is the leader of the ruling Naional Democratic
Party Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister
on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from
his office.
Legislature
Egyptian legislation is instituted according to the following hierarchy:
the Constitution, Parliament legislation, Presidential decree, Prime
Minister's decree, ministerial decision and acts of governors and
heads of governmental bodies and public corporations. Laws, Presidential
decrees and Decrees of the Prime Minister are published in Egypt's
Official Gazette, usually within two weeks of their issuance, and,
unless they provide otherwise, they become effective one month from
the date of publication. Ministerial decisions as well as other
decisions and acts approved for publication are published in the
Egyptian Proceedings, a supplement of the Official Gazette. Legislative
authority in Egypt is vested in the unicameral, 454-member People’s
Assembly. Of the total membership, 444 legislators are elected for
five-year terms, of which half must be from the worker and farmer
groups and some must be women, and 10 members of the Coptic community
are appointed by the president. The People’s Assembly is empowered
to approve the budget, make investigations, levy taxes, and approve
government programs or withdraw confidence from the cabinet or any
of its members. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for all Egyptian
citizens age 18 and older.
Judiciary
Judicial authority in Egypt is vested in an independent judicial
system, which is based on elements of Islamic, English, and French
laws. Until the first half of the 19th century, Egypt, under the
leadership of Khedive Ismail and his successors, underwent a rapid
process of westernization, which included, inter alia, the adoption
of modern codes of law modeled after the French Napoleonic Code.
Since that time, Egypt has adopted a more Roman (Civil Law) system,
in which matters involving personal status such as marriage, inheritance
and divorce were made subject to Islamic substantive law. Currently,
the procedural and substantive laws of Egypt are applied throughout
the Republic, except in cases of personal status which are decided
in accordance with Islamic substantive law in cases involving Muslims
whether Egyptians or aliens, Church substantive law in cases involving
non-Muslim Egyptians or according to the substantive law of the
nation of the litigant parties in cases involving non-Muslim foreigners.
The Supreme Constitutional Court is the highest judicial body. Courts
of general jurisdiction are divided into four levels. The Court
of Cassation renders final judgments in civil and criminal matters
and is composed of a president, 41 vice presidents, and 92 justices.
Below the Court of Cassation are seven courts of appeal, each with
jurisdiction over one or more of Egypt’s governorates. In each
governorate is a primary tribunal that hears both civil and criminal
cases. At the lowest level are summary tribunals, which are branches
of the primary tribunals that are situated in various districts
and headed by a single judge. Local Government Egypt is divided
into 26 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the
president. The governors are aided by councils, of which most of
the members are elected. Political Parties From 1961 to 1977 the
Arab Socialist Union (ASU) was the only legal political party in
Egypt. When a multiparty system was introduced in 1977, the ASU
was replaced by several new parties. The number of active political
groups grew to 11 by the early 1990s, though political parties must
be approved by the government. Laws prohibit the formation of political
parties along class lines, which serves to restrict the emergence
of some parties, particularly those on the left. In the early 1990s
the leading political group was the ruling National Democratic Party.
Principal opposition groups were the Socialist Labor Party, the
Muslim Brotherhood, and the New Wafd Party. Opposition parties boycotted
the 1990 election in an unsuccessful effort to repeal legislation
allowing the declaration of states of emergency
Most Egyptians are descended from the indigenous pre-Muslim population
(the ancient Egyptians) and the Arabs, who conquered the area in
the 7th century AD. Elements of other conquering peoples (Greeks,
Romans, Turks) are also present, especially in Lower Egypt. The
mixture has given the inhabitants of the Nile Valley physical characteristics
that set them apart from the other Mediterranean peoples of the
region. The Nubians, an indigenous people, are an important minority
group in Egypt. The Nubians lived in villages along the Nile in
southern Egypt and northern Sudan for thousands of years. However,
the formation of Lake Nasser inundated many of these villages.The
proportion of the population living in rural areas is decreasing
as people move to the cities seeking employment and a higher standard
of living. Some 45 percent of the Egyptian population lives in urban
areas. Nomadic and seminomadic herders, mostly Bedouins, continue
to live in the desert regions.
Population Characteristics
The population of Egypt is 78 million. Almost 99 percent of the
population lives within the Nile Valley and delta, which constitutes
less than 4 percent of Egypt’s total area. While the overall population
density for the country is 66 persons per sq km (171 per sq mi),
the Nile Valley and delta are among the most densely populated regions
in the world, with about 1,900 persons per sq km (about 4,900 per
sq mi).
Islam is the official religion, and 94 percent of all Egyptians
are Muslims, most of them members of the Sunni sect. According to
official Egyptian estimates, the Coptic Orthodox church, a Christian
denomination, has no more than 3 million adherents and constitutes
the largest religious minority; Copts themselves claim some 7 million
members. An estimated 1 million people belong to the Greek Orthodox,
Roman Catholic, Armenian, and various Protestant churches. The country
has a very small Jewish community.
The official language of Egypt is Arabic, though with an Egyptian
dialect. Berber is spoken in a few villages in the western oases.
French and English are common second languages among the educated.
Today, Arabic ranks as the sixth most common language with an estimated
186 million native speakers. Furthermore, as the language of the
Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, it is also widely understood throughout
the Muslim world, even in countries where Arabic is not the native
language. The Egyptian colloquial Arabic is spoken by some 50 million
people, mostly in Egypt. One need not learn an extensive amount
of Arabic to function in Egypt outside of the confines of the tourist
industry. Understanding some useful words and phrases will go a
long way.
Basic Arabic phrases:
- Mar aba--Hello!
- Yaa... --Hey! (used only with person's name or title)
- Anaa--I
- Anta--(also Inta)--you, masculine singular
- Anti (also Inti)--you, feminine singular
- Huwa--he
- Hiya--she
- Ismii.... --My name is...
- Maa ismak? What is your name? (to a male)
- Maa ismik? What is your name? (to a female)
- Ustaath--male teacher
- Ustaathah--female teacher
- Tilmiith--Male student, pupil. (elementary/middle school)
- Tilmiithah--Female student, pupil.
- Taalib--Male student (high school or college)
- Taalibah--Female student
- Madrasah--School
- Jaamicah--University
- Min--from
- Ayna--Where?
- Min ayna anti? Where are you (f) from?
- Min ayna huwa? Where is he from?
- Anaa min Philadelphia--I am from Philadelphia.
- Hiya min Lubnan--She is from Lebanon.
- Man?--Who?
- Man Hiya?--Who is she?
- Man huwa?--Who is he?
- Huwa Ustaath fii Jaamicat Pennsylvania.--He is a professor at
U. Penn.
- Hiya tilmiithah fii Madrasat Turner.--She is a student at Turner
School.
- abaa al-Khayr--Good Morning! (Morning of Goodness!)
- abaa an-Nuur--(response) And Good Morning to you! (Morning of
Light!)
- Masaa' al-Khayr--Good Afternoon/Evening!
- Masaa' an-Nuur--(response) And Good Afternoon to you!
- Kayf--How?
- al- aal--the situation or condition
- Kayf al- aal?--How are you?
- Bi-khayr--Fine, good, well
- Anaa bi-khayr--I'm fine.
- al- amdu li-Llah!--God be praised! (said in response to question
How are you?)
- Wa anti/anta?--and you?
Primary and secondary education is free, as are public universities
and technical schools. Education is compulsory for children between
the ages of 6 and 14. Graduates of the primary schools may attend
either a general intermediate school, which prepares for a secondary
education, or a technical intermediate school specializing in industrial
and agricultural subjects. The secondary school system is similarly
divided into general schools, with curricula designed to prepare
students for a university education, and technical schools. Primary
and Secondary Schools In 1996 nearly all primary school-age children
were enrolled in school. Secondary school enrollment was 75 percent,
including vocational and teacher training schools.
Universities and Colleges
Egypt has 13 state universities. Al Azhar University at Cairo, founded
in AD 970 as a school of Islamic studies, enrolls about 90,000 students
and is the oldest continually existing institution of higher learning
in the world. Faculties of engineering, medicine, business administration,
and agriculture were added in 1961, and women were first admitted
in 1962. Ayn Shams University (1950) in Cairo has 100,000 students,
and the University of Cairo (1908) has nearly 77,000 students. Other
leading universities include the University of Alexandria (1942),
the University of Asyup (1957), and the American University in Cairo
(1919). Egypt also has many technical colleges and institutes of
art and music.
The Ministry of Culture directs cultural activities in Egypt.
The country has various cultural facilities, including the Pocket
Theater, the National Puppet Theater, the Opera House, and the National
Symphony. Since the early 1960s there has been a growing interest
in folk dancing, which is performed by two national dance groups.
Egypt is the principal filmmaking country in the Arab world, with
a state-operated cinema corporation and numerous private film companies.
Among the many outstanding museums in Cairo is the Egyptian Museum,
also known as the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, which houses a
vast collection of relics and artifacts from almost every period
of ancient Egypt.
Latest archeological discover:
On 27 November 2007 a Russian archeological team found a 2,000-year-old
family tomb containing three well-preserved mummies from the Ptolemaic
era. The wooden coffins were ornamented with colored paintings and
carved with hieroglyphs, recounting the family's story. A man, probably
the head of the family, was buried with a gold-plated mask. The
remains will be x-rayed to establish the man's true age and to reconstruct
his appearance. The tomb also contained 1.4-meter coffin made of
compressed papyrus. Judging by the illustrations adorning the coffin,
it contains a mummy of a child, probably a girl, but researchers
have decided not to open it 'in the field'. A mummy of an old woman
with well-preserved hair has also aroused interest, as well as a
tomb of a baby, buried with mummified dogs, cats, monkeys and ibises
(long-legged wading birds). The Culture of Egypt has five thousand
years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest
civilizations. For millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex
and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the
Middle East and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came
under the influence of Hellenism, for a time Christianity, and later,
Arab and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient
culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the
influence of modern Western culture.
Egyptian Literature.
The ancient Egyptians wrote their stories on papyrus as well as
walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks and more. Perhaps the best known
example of ancient Egyptian literature is the Story of Sinuhe; other
well known works include the Westcar Papyrus and the Ebers papyrus,
as well as the famous Book of the Dead. While most literature in
ancient Egypt was so-called "Wisdom literature" (that is, literature
meant for instruction rather than entertainment), there also existed
myths, stories and biographies solely for entertainment purposes.
The autobiography has been called the oldest form of Egyptian literature.
The Nile had a strong influence on the writings of the ancient Egyptians,
as did Greco-Roman poets who came to Alexandria to be supported
by the many patrons of the arts who lived there, and to make use
of the resources of the Library of Alexandria. Many great thinkers
from around the ancient world came to the city, including Callimachus
of Libya and Theocritus of Syracuse. Not all of the great writers
of the period came from outside of Egypt, however; one notable Egyptian
poet was Apollonius of Rhodes.
1. Christian Egyptian literature
Alexandria would also go onto become an important center in early
Christianity during roughly the 1st to 4th century CE. The Nag Hammadi
library and other Coptic works have become important sources for
Christian literature of the period that would have otherwise been
lost to history.
2. Islamic Egyptian literature
By the eighth century Egypt had been conquered by the Muslim Arabs.
Literature, and especially libraries, thrived under the new Egypt
brought about by the Muslim conquerors. Several important changes
occurred during this time which affected Egyptian writers. Papyrus
was replaced by cloth paper, and calligraphy was introduced as a
writing system. Also, the focus of writing shifted almost entirely
to Islam.
3. Modern Egyptian literature
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Arab world
experienced a al-Nahda, a Renaissance-esque movement which touched
nearly all areas of life, including literature. One of the most
important figures from this time was Naguib Mahfouz, the first Egyptian
to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1914 Muhammad Husayn Haykal
wrote Zaynab, considered the first modern Egyptian as well as Islamic
novel.
4. Notable Egyptian writers
Taha Husayn, Yūsuf Idrīs, Sonallah Ibrahim, Tawfiq al-Hakim, Gamal,
Abdel Nasser
Egyptian music and dance
Egyptian music has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since
ancient times. The ancient Egyptians credited the god Thoth with
the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his
effort to civilize the world. The earliest material and representational
evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predyanstic
period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom
when harps, flutes and double clarinets were played. Percussion
instruments, lyres and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle
Kingdom.
Cymbals frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still
do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music including the traditional
Sufi zikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient
Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and
instruments. In general, modern Egyptian music blends these indigenous
traditions with Turkish, Arabic, and Western elements. Arabic music
is usually said to have begun in the 7th century in Syria during
the Umayyad dynasty. Early Arabic music was influenced by Byzantine,
Indian and Persian forms, which were themselves heavily influenced
by earlier Greek, Semitic, and ancient Egyptian music. The tonal
structure of Arabic music is defined by the maqamat loosely similar
to Western modes, while the rhythm of Arabic music is governed by
the awzan (wazn, sing) formed by combinations of accented and unaccented
beats and rests. Since the 1970s, Egyptian pop music has become
increasingly important in Egyptian culture, particularly among the
large youth population of Egypt. Egyptian folk music continues to
be played during weddings and other traditional festivities. In
the last quarter of the 20th century, Egyptian music was a way to
communicate social and class issues.
Among some of the most popular Egyptian pop singers today are
Mohamed Mounir and Amr Diab. Religious music remains an essential
part of traditional Muslim and Coptic celebrations called mulids.
Mulids are held in Egypt to celebrate the saint of a particular
mosque or church. Muslim mulids are related to the Sufi zikr ritual.
The Egyptian flute, called the ney, is commonly played at mulids.
The liturgical music of the Coptic Church also constitutes an important
element of Egyptian music and is said to have preserved many features
of ancient Egyptian music. Belly dance, or Raqs Sharqi in Arabic,
may have originated in Egypt, and today the country is considered
the international center of the art.
Cinema
Egyptian cinema is a flourishing film industry with a long history.
As a result, the Egyptian capital has been dubbed the "Hollywood
of the Middle East", where the world-renowned Cairo International
Film Festival is held every year.
International trade
The Egyptian market has been opening up gradually, especially since
the EU-Egypt Association Agreement which came into force in June
2004. The top three export partners are: Italy, the USA and Spain.
Its top three import partners are: the USA, Germany and China. Egypt
mainly exports mineral fuels & oils, cotton, and iron &
steel; while as it mainly imports consumer electronic and capital
goods, nuclear reactors and boilers, cereals, food products, and
chemicals.
Market Spotlight:
Egypt’s economic liberalization program and wide ranging reforms
resulted in strong and broad-based growth. The outlook is equally
encouraging. The current five-year plan (for the period 2006/07-10/11)
aims to GDP growth rate of 8% a year, which is very ambitious; GDP
growth rate of 6% is more realistic. New gas discoveries are encouraging.
Investment in infrastructure is set to continue. Confidence has
encouraged private spending and has attracted strong FDI inflows
from the Gulf countries (GCC). The sale of state assets has kept
the fiscal position in check because any substantial cuts in subsidies
would be met by major popular protests. The services industry has
not fully met job creation needs. Inflationary pressures have to
be addressed. The Egyptian pound has been stable. The external accounts
have strengthened with larger exports and invisibles receipts. But,
this outcome could be challenged in future years, as reforms implemented
so far, have been designed to ease imports.
Recent performance:
Egypt’s strong performance has reflected ongoing reforms, strong
capital inflows and a surge in gas output. The government is expected
to pursue its economic program that has resulted in robust growth,
which is in their view, the best course to raise living standards
and undercut the Islamists' appeal. Nevertheless, the government
is expected to be more cautious about potentially painful reforms,
such as streamlining public administration. The government remains
concerned about its ability to transform a positive macroeconomic
situation into tangible benefits for ordinary Egyptians. Job creation,
while starting to have an impact, is still insufficient to curb
massive (and under reported) unemployment. The plan that covers
the period of 2007 through 2011 is targeting a GDP growth rate of
8% a year. However, GDP growth rate averaging 6% a year is more
realistic in view of the country’s bottlenecks. High inflation,
with prices rising faster than salaries, will be the key socioeconomic
challenge.
Fiscal policy:
Inflation, which by the end of 2006 had risen to 11.8%, resulted
from an outbreak of bird flu and adjustment in some administrated
prices. The general government fiscal balance has shown a large
deficit of roughly 8% of GDP a year. Nevertheless, the overall fiscal
deficit has been reduced to more manageable levels through tax reforms
and the sale of state assets – such as Telecom Egypt and Verta
Paper Manufacturing Company. Large fiscal deficits led to a (net)
public sector debt equivalent to more than 70% of GDP, excluding
deposits (blocked accounts) in the central bank for repayments on
Paris Club rescheduled debt are excluded. Tariffs have been reduced
and interest rates may increase, but it may not be sufficient to
keep inflation single digit. Progress has been made towards the
introduction of a full inflation-targeting regime.
Banking sector:
There has been further rationalization in the banking sector (the
number of commercial banks cut from 57 to 39) and Bank Alexandria
has been privatized. Even though the Central Bank has implemented
a series of reforms, it is not independent. More than 60% of financial
sector is controlled by the state. It has suffered from political
interference, bad management and an economic slowdown since the
late 1990s. Non-performing loans exceed 20-25% of total loans. S&P
put the figure at 35-50%, but the sale of Bank Alexandria should
improve data. The government has reduced capital requirements in
the hope to encourage private sector business.
Outlook:
Egypt is benefiting from oil windfalls and the floating pound, but
the fiscal reform remains an outstanding issue. The sale of state
assets delays the civil service reform. Over the medium-term, the
overriding issue is to achieve strong growth to create employment
Moreover, subsidy and bureaucratic reform will remain contentious.
1. Agriculture
Egypt is predominantly an agricultural country, with about 40 percent
of the labor force engaged in crop farming, herding, or fishing.
The pattern of land ownership was greatly altered by the Agricultural
Reform Decree of 1952, which limited individual holdings to about
80 hectares (about 200 acres), a figure revised in 1961 to about
40 hectares (about 100 acres), and revised again to about 20 hectares
(about 50 acres) in 1969. Lands requisitioned by the government
were distributed to the fellahin (peasants), but an economic gap
still remains between the middle-class farmers and the fellahin.
Government programs have expanded arable areas through reclamation,
irrigation (notably since the completion of the Aswân High Dam
in 1970), and the use of advanced technology (fertilizers, mechanized
equipment). The yields of Egyptian farmlands are now among the highest
in the world. Egypt is one of the world’s leading producers of
long-staple (long-fibered) cotton. Annual cotton lint production
in 1998 was about 850,000 metric tons. Warm weather and plentiful
water permit as many as three crops a year, giving Egypt abundant
agricultural yields.
2. Fishing
Egypt has a significant fishing industry. In 1996 the annual catch
was 309,576 metric tons. Among the most productive areas are the
shallow deltaic lakes, Birkat Qârûn, and the Red Sea. The formerly
productive sardine fisheries along the Mediterranean coast have
been greatly depleted since the construction of the Aswân High
Dam. A fishing industry is being developed in Lake Nasser.
3.Mining
Crude petroleum, which accounts for 48 percent of export earnings,
is the most important mineral product of Egypt. Production was about
26.4 million barrels annually in the early 1960s. As a result of
the discovery in the 1950s and 1960s of large new fields in the
Al ‘Alamayn and Gulf of Suez areas, and a major exploration effort
in the 1970s, annual production of crude petroleum increased to
313 million barrels in 1997. Proven reserves stood at 6.2 billion
barrels in 1992 as Egypt renewed exploration, signing 12 agreements
with foreign companies to drill new wells. The country is encouraging
natural gas production to supply domestic energy needs, with annual
extraction in 1997 of 13.5 billion cu m (477 billion cu ft). Other
important products of the mining industry in the early 1990s included
phosphate rock (1.5 million metric tons), iron ore (1.2 million
tons metal content), and salt (1.1 million tons). Uranium ore began
to be mined near Aswân in 1991.
4.Manufacturing
Initial moves toward industrialization in Egypt in the 19th century
were frustrated by the European powers, primarily Britain, which
preferred to have the country remain a market for their manufactured
goods. During and after World War I (1914-1918), new efforts resulted
in the development of a small industrial base capable of meeting
some of the domestic demand. During World War II (1939-1945), this
base was greatly expanded, especially in the area of textiles. After
the overthrow of the monarchy in the early 1950s, the government
assigned top priority to industrial expansion. In 1965, after the
completion of the first five-year plan, the total value of industrial
production, including electric power and mining output, had reached
some $2.71 billion annually, and by 1997 the value of manufacturing
and mining was 32 percent of gross domestic product.
Leading branches of the manufacturing sector are processed food,
refined petroleum, textiles, and chemicals. Important products of
Egyptian industry include cotton yarn, jute yarn and fabrics, wool
yarn, raw sugar, sulfuric acid, nitrogenous fertilizers, paper,
cement, motor-vehicle tires and tubes, and televisions. Other industrial
activities included the manufacture of iron and steel (at Ḩulwân),
motor vehicle assembly, and oil refining (at several locations).
These and other industries employ 22 percent of the labor force.
Smaller-scale industrial enterprises of significance to the economy
include tanning, brewing, and the manufacture of pottery, perfumes,
handicrafts, cottonseed oil, flour and other processed foodstuffs,
and asphalt. Most industrial activity is centered around Cairo and
Alexandria.
5.Energy
Before 1970 most of the electrical power produced in Egypt was generated
by thermal plants. The 12 turbines on the Aswân High Dam, completed
in 1970, dramatically increased the country’s total installed
capacity.
6.Tourism
- Egypt leads the growth in the Middle East region with 25% market
share.
- The number of tourists in Egypt almost doubled between 2001/02
to 2005/06 .
- International Tourist Arrivals reached 8.1 million, with a growth
rate of 34.1 % comparing with 2003. (Source: WTO)
- The total growth during the period 2001-2004 is 88.37%, while
average annual growth rate was 22.09%. (Source: Ministry of Tourism)
- International Tourist Nights in 2004 reached 81.667 million
nights, 53% more than 2003. (Source: Ministry of Tourism)
- Tourists' average length of stay was 10.1 night in 2004 compared
with 8.7 night in 2003.
- International Tourism Receipts in 2004 reached 6.120 billion
US$ an increase of 1.45 billion US$ comparing with 2003. (Source:
the Egyptian Central Bank)
- The direct and indirect impact for tourism on GDP represents
11.3 %.
- Tourism effects on employment reach 12.6 % of the Egyptian labour
force.
- Tourism is the number one contributor to the economy: 22.1 %
of Egypt's foreign exchange earnings. Investments in the tourism
sector:
- Number of companies increased from 86 companies in 1994 to 1352
companies in June 2003. (source: GAFI)
- Tourism companies employ a total of 184 448 people. (source:
GAFI)
- Number of hotels and touristic villages increased from 752 in
1995 to 909 in 2004. (source: IDSC)
Egypt 2020 Vision:
- WTO 2020 Vision forecasts that Egypt will remain the region’s
largest tourist receiving country with over 17 million international
tourist arrivals (ITA)
- The expected growth rate in ITA for the period 1995-2020 is
above the average for ME region and world, at 7.4 %. (source:
WTO)
- Strongest growth is expected from European generating markets
of France, Germany and Italy. (Source: WTO)
Currency in Egypt is the Egyptian pound. 100 piastres equal one
Egyptian pound (£E). Notes range from 25 piastres up to a 1,000
pound notes. The most commonly found notes will be 1,5,10, 20 and
50 Egyptian pound notes, while coins are rarely used as their worth
is so small.
The banking system comprises 39 state owned commercial banks.
This includes 28 commercial banks, four of which are state-owned,
26 investment banks (11 joint venture banks and 15 branches of foreign
banks), and three specialized banks. Although private and joint
venture banks are growing, many remain relatively small with few
branch networks.
Currency:
- Egyptian Pound Flexible exchange rate
- 1 Sterling pound: 10.80EGP
- 1 Euro: 8.00EGP
- 1 US$: 5.50EGP
Egypt’s banking system has undergone major reforms since the
1990s and today we are faced with a liberalized and modernized system
which is supervised and regulated according to internationally accepted
standards. The Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) has improved the Egyptian
banking systems in the following ways:
- 1.Introduction of laws giving more independence to the CBE,
and an electronic signature law
- 2.Regulation of connected and related party lending
- 3.Management reforms of the four public sector banks, making
clear the responsibilities of managers and boards of directors
- 4.Development of an automated credit risk information system
(CRIS), from which participants would be able to gain online access
to clients' credit profiles.
However, Egyptian banks are still behind other Western banks in
supplying a good range of mortgage products to their clients. Although
this is soon to change, the mortgage market is underdeveloped in
Egypt and as yet foreigners cannot yet obtain a mortgage for a property
in Egypt. In the near future, a new mortgage law will enable purchasers
to take out property loans. This will open up the market considerably
and create a storm of development and real estate activity in the
near future. Bank opening times are 8.30am to 2pm daily, closed
Fridays, Saturdays and most holidays. You will also be able to change
money easily at big hotels and cruise boats. You will receive an
official receipt when exchanging money and this should be kept for
possible inspection. Cash point machines are also available where
you can withdraw cash.
There is a variety of good options for getting to Egypt, with
good connections between Cairo and the Red Sea holiday destinations
and many European cities. Domestic air travel is clearly the quickest
way to get around and is inexpensive, although Egypt has a good
system of public and private transport which includes buses, trains,
boats, and even camels, donkeys and horses!
1.By Rail
Egypt has 4,810 km (2,989 mi) of rail all of which are state owned
connects just about every town in the country. The principal line
links Aswân and points north in the Nile Valley to Alexandria on
the Mediterranean coast. The journey between Cairo and Alexandria
takes approximately 2½ hours by regular train and almost 2 hours
by the turbine engine train or the Spanish one. Cairo to Luxor takes
approximately 10 hours.
2. By Road
Two highways connect Cairo with Alexandria. Other highways connect
Cairo to Port Said, Suez, and Al Fayyûm. The total length of highways
and roads is 64,000 km (39,768 mi). There are other connections
to Egypt from elsewhere in Africa and the Middle East which includes
the bus from Israel via the Gulf of Aqaba or the southern edge of
the Gaza Strip. The journey time from Cairo to Alexandria by bus
or car is about 2½ hours, to Suez and Ismailia is about 1½ hours
and Port Said (free trade zone) about 2½ hours. Cars drive on the
right in Egypt; and there is a speed-limit of 100 km per hour on
all main roads. Road safety is low and it is not recommended to
drive after dark outside the main cities. Taxis are a usual form
of transport in towns and cities and are relatively inexpensive
and a comfortable ride. Local minibuses are an inexpensive way to
travel costing only a few Egyptian pounds to travel a couple of
kilometres and they usually congregate at the train and bus stations.
Cars can easily be hired from hotels and airports in most Egyptian
towns. Not recommended for the fainthearted!
3.By waterway
The inland waterways of Egypt—including the Nile, navigable throughout
its course in the country, the approximately 1,600 km (about 1,000
mi) of shipping canals, and the more than 17,700 km (more than 11,000
mi) of irrigation canals in the Nile delta—are used extensively
for transportation. Camel caravans are employed to a limited extent
in the desert.
4. By sea
The major port is Alexandria, followed by Port Said and Suez, all
of which are served by numerous shipping companies. The Suez Canal,
which was closed from 1967 until mid-1975, produces substantial
annual toll revenues. In the early 1990s about 16,600 vessels used
the canal each year. Ferries arrive from Jordan, Saudi Arabia and
Kuwait.
5.By air
International airlines provide regular services between Cairo, Luxor,
Hurgada, Sharm El Sheikh, Marsa Alam, Alexandria and major world
centers. Egypt-Air, the government-owned airline, also provides
domestic and foreign services. There are frequent direct services
operated by British Airways and EgyptAir between London Heathrow
and Cairo International Airport. Generally, foreign airlines use
Terminal 3 at Cairo International airport, whereas the majority
of EgyptAir flights arrive at and depart from Terminal 1 at Cairo
International Airport. The charter airlines also service Egypt's
tourism destination. From the UK to Sharm El Sheikh there are more
than 10 airlines flying from all major airports, 3 airlines flying
to Hurghada and 2 flying to Marsa Alam. Transport from the Egyptian
airports is provided by a "Limousine service" or Taxi at a fixed
price. Taxis, car hire facilities, airlines and bus operators, all
provide a means of traveling to and from Cairo, Alexandria, Sharm
El Sheikh, Hurghada and Marsa Alam International Airports.
The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many regard
as one of the fountainheads of Western culture, cannot be established
with certainty. Archaeological evidence suggests that early dwellers
in the Nile Valley were influenced by cultures of the Near East,
but the degree of this influence is yet to be determined. Describing
the development of Egyptian civilization, like attempts to identify
its intellectual foundations, is largely a process of conjecture
based on archaeological discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and
monuments, many of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient
culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have provided
priceless data. The framework for the study of the Dynastic period
of Egyptian history, between the 1st dynasty and the Ptolemaic period,
relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a Ptolemaic priest of the 3rd
century BC, who organized the country’s rulers into 30 dynasties,
roughly corresponding to families.
General agreement exists on the division of Egyptian history,
up to the conquest of Alexander the Great, into Old, Middle, and
New kingdoms with intermediate periods, followed by the late and
Ptolemaic periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually
being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of increasingly
sophisticated dating techniques.
A Prehistory
Some 60,000 years ago the Nile River began its yearly inundation
of the land along its banks, leaving behind rich alluvial soil.
Areas close to the floodplain became attractive as a source of food
and water. In time, climatic changes, including periods of aridity,
further served to confine human habitation to the Nile Valley, although
this was not always true.
From the Chalcolithic period (the Copper age, beginning about
4000 BC) into the early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently
used an extended part of the land. In the 7th millennium BC, Egypt
was environmentally hospitable, and evidence of settlements from
that time has been found in the low desert areas of southern, or
Upper, Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered
at Nubian sites in modern Sudan.
Enough pottery has been found in Upper Egyptian tombs from the
4th millennium BC (in the Predynastic period) to establish a relative
dating sequence. The Predynastic period, which ends with the unification
of Egypt under one king, is generally subdivided into three parts,
each of which refers to the site at which its archaeological materials
were found: Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II
and III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded datable
archaeological material of apparent cultural continuity but no long-term
sequences such as those found in the south.
Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period
Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late Gerzean
period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political force that was to
become the consolidating element in the first united kingdom of
ancient Egypt. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing dates from
this period; soon the names of early rulers began to appear on monuments.
This period began with a 0 Dynasty, which had as many as 13 rulers,
ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC), followed by the 1st and 2nd
dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with at least 17 kings. Some of
the earliest massive mortuary structures (predecessors of the pyramids)
were built at ªaqqârah, Abydos, and elsewhere during the 1st and
2nd dynasties.
The Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five centuries of
rule by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. The capital was in the
north, at Memphis, and the ruling monarchs held absolute power over
a strongly unified government. Religion played an important role;
in fact, the government had evolved into a theocracy, wherein the
pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both absolute monarchs
and, possibly, gods on earth.
A Golden Age
The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and its
second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about 2737-2717 BC,
emphasized national unity by balancing northern and southern motifs
in his mortuary buildings at ªaqqârah. His architect, Imhotep,
used stone blocks rather than traditional mud bricks in the complex
there, thus creating the first monumental structure of stone; its
central element, the Step Pyramid, was Djoser’s tomb. In order
to deal with affairs of state and to administer construction projects,
the king began to develop an effective bureaucracy. In general,
the 3rd Dynasty marked the beginning of a golden age of cultural
freshness and vigor. The 4th Dynasty began with King Snefru, whose
building projects included the first true pyramid at Dahshor (south
of ªaqqârah).
Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom extensive documents
remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya and was active in the Sinai.
Promoting commerce and mining, he brought prosperity to the kingdom.
Snefru was succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops), who built the
Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of his reign,
that monument not only attests to his power but also indicates the
administrative skills the bureaucracy had gained. Khufu’s son
Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-2603 BC, introduced the solar element
(Ra, or Re) in the royal titulary and the religion. Khafre (or Chephren),
another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother to the throne and built
his mortuary complex at Giza. The remaining rulers of the dynasty
included Menkaure, or Mycerinus, who reigned about 2578-2553 BC;
he is known primarily for the smallest of the three large pyramids
at Giza. Under the 4th Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a
peak in its development, and this high level was generally maintained
in the 5th and 6th dynasties.
The splendor of the engineering feats of the pyramids was approximated
in every other field of endeavor, including architecture, sculpture,
painting, navigation, the industrial arts and sciences, and astronomy;
Memphite astronomers first created a solar calendar based on a year
of 365 days. Old Kingdom physicians also displayed a remarkable
knowledge of physiology, surgery, the circulatory system of the
body, and antiseptics.
Beginning of Decline
Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with extensive
foreign trade and military incursions into Asia, signs of decreasing
royal authority became apparent in the swelling of the bureaucracy
and the enhanced power of nonroyal administrators. The last king
of the dynasty, Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407 BC, was buried
at ªaqqârah, with a body of religious spells, called Pyramid Texts,
carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber.
Such texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th Dynasty.
Several autobiographical inscriptions of officials under the 6th
Dynasty indicate the decreasing status of the monarchy; records
even indicate a conspiracy against King Pepi I, who reigned about
2395-2360 BC, in which the ruler’s wife was involved. It is believed
that during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned about 2350-2260
BC, power may have been in the hands of his vizier (chief minister).
Central authority over the economy was also diminished by decrees
of exemption from taxes. The nomes (districts) were rapidly becoming
individually powerful, as the nomarchs—governors of the districts—were
beginning to remain in place rather than being periodically transferred
to different nomes.
First Intermediate Period
The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First Intermediate
period. As a consequence of internal strife, the reigns of this
and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are rather obscure. It is clear,
however, that both ruled from Memphis and lasted a total of only
25 years. By this time the powerful nomarchs were in effective control
of their districts, and factions in the south and north vied for
power.
Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and 10th dynasties, the nomarchs
near Heracleopolis controlled their area and extended their power
north to Memphis (and even into the delta) and south to Asyûþ
(Lycopolis). The rival southern nomarchs at Thebes established the
11th Dynasty, controlling the area from Abydos to Elephantine, near
Syene (present-day Aswân). The early part of this dynasty, the
first of the Middle Kingdom, overlapped the last part of the 10th.
The Middle Kingdom
Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no longer
effective, and regional concerns were openly championed. Egyptian
art became more provincial, and no massive mortuary complexes were
built. The religion was also democratized, as commoners claimed
prerogatives previously reserved for royalty alone. They could,
for instance, use spells derived from the royal Pyramid Texts on
the walls of their own coffins or tombs.
Reunification
Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally dated
to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly begins with the
reunification of the land by Mentuhotep II, who reigned 2061-2010
BC. The early rulers of the dynasty attempted to extend their control
from Thebes both northward and southward, but it was left to Mentuhotep
to complete the reunification process, sometime after 2047 BC. Mentuhotep
ruled for more than 50 years, and despite occasional rebellions,
he maintained stability and control over the whole kingdom.
He replaced some nomarchs and limited the power of the nomes,
which was still considerable. Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary
temple at Dayr al Baḩrî incorporated both traditional and regional
elements; the tomb was separate from the temple, and there was no
pyramid. The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I,
was peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and, unlike
Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of national unity.
Nevertheless, the important Theban god Amon was given prominence
over other deities. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nomes, rebuilt
the bureaucracy, and educated a staff of scribes and administrators.
The literature was predominantly propaganda designed to reinforce
the image of the king as a "good shepherd" rather than as an inaccessible
god. During the last ten years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with
his son as co-regent. "The Story of Sinuhe," a literary work of
the period, implies that the king was assassinated. Amenemhet’s
successors continued his programs. His son, Sesostris I, who reigned
1962-1928 BC, built fortresses throughout Nubia and established
trade with foreign lands. He sent governors to Palestine and Syria
and campaigned against the Libyans in the west. Sesostris II, who
reigned 1895-1878 BC, began land reclamation in Al Fayyûm. His
successor, Sesostris III, who reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a canal
dug at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a standing army (which
he used in his campaign against the Nubians), and built new forts
on the southern frontier.
He divided the administration into three powerful geographic units,
each controlled by an official under the vizier, and he no longer
recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet III continued the policies
of his predecessors and extended the land reform. A vigorous renaissance
of culture took place under the Theban kings. The architecture,
art, and jewelry of the period reveal an extraordinary delicacy
of design, and the time was considered the golden age of Egyptian
literature.
Second Intermediate Period
The rulers of the 13th Dynasty—some 50 or more in about 120
years—were weaker than their predecessors, although they were
still able to control Nubia and the administration of the central
government.
During the latter part of their rule, however, their power was
challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which won control
over the delta, but also by the Hyksos, who invaded from western
Asia. By the 13th Dynasty there was a large Hyksos population in
northern Egypt. As the central government entered a period of decline,
their presence made possible an influx of people from coastal Phoenicia
and Palestine and the establishment of a Hyksos dynasty. This marks
the beginning of the Second Intermediate period, a time of turmoil
and disunity that lasted for some 214 years.
The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from their capital at Avaris
in the eastern delta, maintaining control over the middle and northern
parts of the country. At the same time, the 16th Dynasty also existed
in the delta and Middle Egypt, but it may have been subservient
to the Hyksos. More independence was exerted in the south by a third
contemporaneous power, the Theban 17th Dynasty, which ruled over
the territory between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose,
who reigned about 1576-1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully,
but it was his brother, Ahmose I, who finally subdued them, reuniting
Egypt.
The New Kingdom
With the unification of the land and the founding of the 18th
Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC) began. Ahmose
reestablished the borders, goals, and bureaucracy of the Middle
Kingdom and revived its land-reclamation program. He maintained
the balance of power between the nomarchs and himself with the support
of the military, who were accordingly rewarded. The importance of
women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high titles and position
of the royal wives and mothers.
The 18th Dynasty Kings
Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full control over
his administration—he was co-regent for five years—he began
to extend Egypt’s boundaries in Nubia and Palestine. A major builder
at Al Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike his predecessors, separated his
tomb from his mortuary temple; he began the custom of hiding his
final resting place.
Thutmose I continued the advances of the new Imperial Age and
emphasized the preeminence of the god Amon. His tomb was the first
in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife,
succeeded him, marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen
his claim to the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of his
predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir, Thutmose III, was
still a child, and so Hatshepsut governed as a regent. Within a
year, she had herself crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son ruled
jointly. When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon Hatshepsut’s
death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and Palestine, which had
broken away under joint rule, and then continued to expand his empire.
His annals in the temple at Al Karnak chronicle many of his campaigns.
Nearly 20 years after Hatshepsut’s death, he ordered the obliteration
of her name and images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC,
and Thutmose IV tried to maintain the Asian conquests in the face
of growing threats from the Mitanni and Hittite states, but they
found it necessary to use negotiations as well as force. Amenhotep
III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades, 1386-1349 BC, and
art and architecture flourished during his reign.
He maintained the balance of power among Egypt’s neighbors by
diplomacy. His son and successor, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was
a religious reformer who fought the power of the Amon priesthood.
Akhenaton abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see Tall
al ‘Amârinah), which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of
the sun on which his monotheistic religion centered. The religious
revolution was abandoned toward the end of his reign, however, and
his son-in-law, Tutankhamun, returned the capital to Thebes. Tutankhamun
is known today chiefly for his richly furnished tomb, which was
found nearly intact in the Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologists
Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922. The 18th Dynasty ended
with Horemheb, who reigned 1321-1293 BC.
The Ramesside Period
The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned 1293-1291
BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and commander of the army.
Reigning only two years, he was succeeded by his son, Seti I, who
reigned 1291-1279 BC; he led campaigns against Syria, Palestine,
the Libyans, and the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary at Abydos.
Like his father, he favored the delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (now
Qantir).
One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded him and reigned for nearly
67 years. He was responsible for much construction at Luxor and
Al Karnak, and he built the Ramesseum (his funerary temple at Thebes),
the rock-cut temples at Abû Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and
Memphis. After campaigns against the Hittites, Ramses made a treaty
with them and married a Hittite princess.
His son Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC, defeated the Sea
Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the Middle East in the
13th century BC, and records tell of his desolating Israel. Later
rulers had to contend with constant uprisings by subject peoples
of the empire. The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III,
had his military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary
complex at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death the New Kingdom
declined, chiefly because of the rising power of the priesthood
of Amon and the army. One high priest and military commander even
had himself depicted in royal regalia.
Third Intermediate Period
The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third
Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the north, vied
with a line of high priests, to whom they appear to be related,
from Thebes, in the south. The rulers of the 21st Dynasty may have
been partially Libyan in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty began with
Libyan chieftains as kings. As the Libyans’ rule deteriorated,
several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact the next two dynasties,
the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous with part of the 22nd Dynasty,
just as the 25th (Kushite) Dynasty effectively controlled much of
Egypt during the latter years of the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.
Late Period
The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the
time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The Kushites
ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by the Assyrians
in 671 BC. Native rule was reestablished early in the 26th Dynasty
by Psamtik I. A resurgence of cultural achievement, reminiscent
of earlier epochs, reached its height in the 26th Dynasty.
When the last Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II in 525
BC, the country entered a period of Persian domination under the
27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under the 28th and
29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last one of native
rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not listed in Manetho’s chronology,
represented the second Persian domination.
The Hellenistic and Roman Periods
The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the Great
in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander appointed Cleomenes
of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt, and his Macedonian general,
known later as Ptolemy I, to govern the country. Although two Egyptian
governors were named as well, power was clearly in the hands of
Ptolemy, who in a few years took absolute control of the country.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty
Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of Alexander’s
empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied much of Ptolemy’s time,
but in 305 BC he assumed the royal title and founded the dynasty
that bears his name (see Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ptolemaic Egypt was
one of the great powers of the Hellenistic world, and at various
times it extended its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus,
Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands. Partly because native Egyptian
rulers had a reduced role in affairs of state during the Ptolemaic
regime, they periodically demonstrated their dissatisfaction by
open revolts, all of which were, however, quickly suppressed.
In the reign of Ptolemy VI, Egypt became a protectorate under
Antiochus IV of Syria, who successfully invaded the country in 169
BC. The Romans, however, forced Antiochus to give up the country,
which was then divided between Ptolemy VI and his younger brother,
Ptolemy VIII; the latter took full control upon the death of his
brother in 145 BC. The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth
and status of Egypt while continually losing territory to the Romans.
Cleopatra VII was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic line. In
an attempt to maintain Egyptian power she aligned herself with Julius
Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, but these moves only postponed the
end. After her forces were defeated by Roman legions under Octavian
(later Emperor Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.
Roman and Byzantine Rule
For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans
controlled Egypt (except for a short time in the 3rd century AD,
when it came under the power of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra). They
treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and profit and were
dependent on its supply of grain to feed their multitudes. Roman
Egypt was governed by a prefect, whose duties as commander of the
army and official judge were similar to those of the pharaohs of
the past. The office, therefore, was one with which the native population
was familiar.
Because of the immense power of the prefects, however, their functions
were eventually divided under Emperor Justinian, who in the 6th
century AD put the army under a separate commander, directly responsible
to him. Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its southern
boundary at Aswân was only rarely attacked by the Ethiopians. Egypt’s
population had become Hellenized under the Ptolemies, and it included
large minorities of Greeks and Jews, as well as other peoples from
Asia Minor.
The mixture of the cultures did not lead to a homogeneous society,
and civil strife was frequent. In 212, however, Emperor Caracalla
granted the entire population citizenship in the Roman Empire. Alexandria,
the port city on the Mediterranean founded by Alexander the Great,
remained the capital as it had been under the Ptolemies. One of
the great metropolises of the Roman Empire, it was the center of
a thriving commerce between India and Arabia and the Mediterranean
countries. It was the home of the great Alexandrian library and
museum and had a population of some 300,000 (excluding slaves).
Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not only
because of its annual harvest of grain but also for its glass, metal,
and other manufactured products. In addition, the trade brought
in spices, perfumes, precious stones, and rare metals from the Red
Sea ports. Once part of the empire, Egypt was subject to a variety
of taxes as well. In order to control the people and placate the
powerful priesthood, the Roman emperors protected the ancient religion,
completed or embellished temples begun under the Ptolemies, and
had their own names inscribed on them as pharaohs; the cartouches
of several can be found at Isna, Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae.
The Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis spread throughout the ancient
world. Egypt was also an important center of early Christendom and
the first one of Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or Monophysite
church separated from mainstream Christianity in the 5th century.
During the 7th century the power of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine)
Empire was challenged by the Sassanids of Persia, who invaded Egypt
in 616. They were expelled again in 628, but soon after, in 641,
the country fell to the Arabs, who brought with them a new religion,
Islam, and began a new chapter of Egyptian history.
Egypt Under the Caliphate
Alienated by the religious intolerance and heavy taxation of the
Byzantine government, the Coptic Egyptians offered little resistance
to their Arab conquerors. A treaty was subsequently signed, by which
the Egyptians agreed to pay a poll tax (jizyah) in return for an
Arab promise to respect the religious practices, lives, and property
of the Copts. Besides the poll tax, the male population, estimated
at between 6 and 8 million, paid the kharaj, a tax levied on agricultural
land.
Local Government
No changes in the administration were made by the Arabs, who adopted
the Byzantine decentralized system of provincial governors reporting
to a chief governor, resident in the capital, Alexandria. They did,
however, later move the capital to a new, more central location,
called Al Fustat ("the tent"), a few miles south of present-day
Cairo.
For the next two centuries Egypt was ruled by governors appointed
by the caliph, the leader of the Muslim community. In this system,
mild and generous rule alternated with severity and religious oppression,
depending on the character of the governor appointed, his relationship
with the population, and his financial needs. Immigration of Arab
tribes and the replacement of the Coptic language by Arabic in all
public documents began a slow process of Arabization that was eventually
to turn Coptic-speaking Christian Egypt into a largely Muslim and
wholly Arabic-speaking country. Coptic became a liturgical language.
Internal Strife
Under the Abbasid caliphs (750-868), governors were appointed
for brief periods, and Egypt was plagued by a series of insurrections
arising from conflicts between the different sects of Muslims who
had settled there: the Sunni, or orthodox majority, and the minority
Shia sect.
On several occasions the Copts also rose to protest excessive
taxation. Such uprisings were met with repression and persecution
by the government. Internal conditions became so bad in the late
8th century that a group of new immigrants from Andalucía allied
themselves with an Arab tribe and seized Alexandria, holding it
until an army arrived from Baghdâd and exiled them to Crete (Kríti).
Insurrections continued to break out among the Arabs, who even defeated
a governor and burned his baggage. Rebellions by the Copts continued
until Caliph Abdullah al-Mamun led a Turkish army to put down the
revolts in 832.
This was a period of ruthless and unscrupulous governors, who
abused the population and extorted money from them. The only bulwark
against such oppression lay in the chief qadi, the country’s leading
Muslim magistrate, who maintained the sacred law—the Sharia—in
the face of abuse of power, and helped ease the rapacity of the
governors. Despite a predominantly rural population, commercial
centers flourished, and Al Fustat grew to become a trading metropolis.
Succeeding Autonomous Dynasties
From 856 onward Egypt was given as an iqta, a form of fief, to
the Turkish military oligarchy that dominated the caliphate in Baghdâd.
In 868 Ahmad ibn Tulun, a 33-year-old Turk, was sent to the country
as governor. A man of ability and education, Tulun ruled wisely
and well, but he also turned Egypt into an autonomous province,
linked with the Abbasids only by the yearly payment of a small tribute.
Tulun built a new city, Al Qiþâ‘î ("the Wards"), north of Al
Fustat. Under his benevolent rule Egypt prospered and expanded to
annex Syria. Tulun’s dynasty (the Tulunids) ruled for 37 years
over an empire that included Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. G1 The
Fatimid Caliphate After the last rule by the Tulunids, the
country fell into a state of anarchy.
Its weak and defenseless condition made it an easy prey for the
Fatimids, a Shiite dynasty that in 909, rejecting the authority
of the Abbasids, had proclaimed their own caliphate in Tunisia and
by the mid-10th century controlled most of North Africa. In 969
they invaded and conquered Egypt and subsequently founded a new
city, Cairo, north of Al Fustat, making it their capital. See Caliphate.
Al Fustat, however, remained the commercial hub of the country
under the Fatimids. It was an impressive, multistoried urban center
with an excellent underground sewage system. An Iranian traveler,
Nasir-i-Khosrau, who visited Egypt in 1046, marveled at the rich
markets and the security of the land. Egypt was then enjoying a
period of tranquillity and prosperity. The Fatimids, although Shiites
in their beliefs, for the most part coexisted peacefully with the
predominantly Sunni population. They founded the oldest university
in the world, Al Azhar, and Cairo became a great intellectual center.
The Ayyubid Sultanate
Tranquillity disappeared with later Fatimid rulers, who could
not control their unruly regiments of Berber and Sudanese soldiers.
A low Nile caused serious famine in 1065. New danger appeared with
the First Crusade from western Europe, which established Christian
control over Syria and Palestine in the late 1090s. The Fatimid
caliphs, by now pawns in the hands of their generals, appealed to
Nur ad-Din of Ḩalab (Aleppo), and he sent an army to help them
against the Crusaders in 1168. Saladin, one of Nur ad-Din’s generals,
was installed as vizier. In 1171 he abolished the Fatimid caliphate,
founding the Ayyubid dynasty and restoring Sunni rule to Egypt.
Saladin reconquered most of Syria and Palestine from the Crusaders
and became the most powerful Middle Eastern ruler of this time.
His nephew, Sultan al-Kamil, who reigned 1218-1238, successfully
defended Egypt against a Christian attack in 1218-1221, but after
his death Ayyubid power declined. The Ninth Crusade, led by Louis
IX of France, was repelled in 1249, with the aid of the Mamelukes,
slave troops in Ayyubid service. The following year the Mamelukes
overthrew the Ayyubids and established their own ruling house.
The Mamelukes
The first Mameluke dynasty, the Bahri, held power as sultans of
Egypt until 1382. Hereditary succession was frequently disregarded
and the throne usurped by the more powerful emirs (military commanders).
Many among them were remarkable rulers, such as Baybars I, who halted
the Mongol advance into Syria and Egypt in 1260. Two other Mongol
invasions were repelled by the Mamelukes, who also expelled the
Crusaders from the region and captured ‘Akko, their last stronghold
in Palestine, in 1291.
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the Mameluke realm
extended north to the borders of Asia Minor. The age of the Mamelukes
was one of extraordinary brilliance in the arts. It was also an
age of commercial expansion; Egypt’s spice traders, the Karimi,
were merchant princes who vied with the emirs in patronizing the
arts. After the death of the last great Bahri sultan, al-Nasir,
in 1341, Egypt lapsed into decline. His descendants were mere figureheads
who allowed real power to remain in the hands of the emirs.
In 1348 the plague known as the Black Death swept over the land,
radically reducing the population. The second dynasty of Mameluke
sultans, the Burjis, was of Circassian origin and ruled from 1382
to 1517. Most of the Burji rulers exercised little real authority;
their dynasty was marked by continual power struggles among the
Mameluke elite. In the midst of rebellion and civil strife, the
Mamelukes continued to hold Egypt and Syria by virtue of their ability
to repel invasions. By the early 16th century, however, they were
threatened by the growing power of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1517
the Ottoman Sultan Selim I invaded Egypt and ruled it.
Ottoman Ascendancy
Although the real hold of the Ottoman Turks over Egypt was to
last only until the 17th century, the country remained nominally
part of the Ottoman Empire until 1915. Rather than exterminate the
Mamelukes, the Ottomans used them in their administration. They
established a governor and settled six ocaks (regiments) in Egypt
as a garrison. In time the roman ocaks intermarried with the native
people, playing an important role in the country’s economic and
political life. Rural areas were treated as crown lands, parceled
into plots called iqta, the produce of which went to the Ottoman
elite.
Mameluke Resurgence
As time went on, an inflationary trend that historians have noted
in 16th-century Europe had repercussions in Egypt as well. Rising
prices led to rivalry among the ocaks over the country’s wealth.
This weakened their control, and the Mamelukes stepped into the
breach.
By the mid-17th century the Mameluke emirs, or beys, had established
their supremacy. Land taxes were farmed out among them, and the
urban guilds, which were closely allied with the roman ocaks, were
heavily taxed as a means of diminishing Ottoman influence and of
increasing revenue. The Ottomans acquiesced in the system so long
as the tribute was regularly paid. The period from the 16th to the
mid-18th century was an age of commercial prosperity when Egypt,
at the crossroads of several commercial routes, was the center of
a flourishing intermediary trade in coffee, textiles, and spices.
The Ottoman governor quickly became a puppet, first in the hands
of the regiments, which held the military power, and then in the
hands of the Mamelukes, who came to control the ocaks.
The leading Mameluke bey, called the Shaikh al-Balad ("chief of
the city"), thus became recognized as the real ruler of the land.
The beys imposed higher taxes to finance their military expeditions
in Syria and Arabia. Although defeated in Syria by the Ottomans,
who once more sought to reinforce their authority, the Mamelukes
dominated Egypt until 1798. The last 30 years of the 18th century
were marked by plagues and famine that reduced the population to
a bare 4 million.
The Time of Muhammad Ali
The French occupation of Egypt in 1798, led by Napoleon Bonaparte,
was a brief interlude, for the French never acquired full dominion
or control. The grain-producing regions of Upper Egypt remained
in Mameluke hands. Napoleon’s invasion was too short-lived to
have any lasting impact, but it marked the beginning of a renewed
European interest in Egypt.
In 1801 an Anglo-Ottoman force expelled the French. For the next
few years, struggles between Mamelukes and Ottomans for mastery
ruined the country until Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman general of Albanian
origin, seized power with the cooperation of the local population.
In 1805 the Ottoman sultan declared him the governor of Egypt. Muhammad
Ali, a man of genius, slowly and methodically destroyed or bought
off all his opponents until he became the only source of power in
the country. To gain control of all the trade routes into Egypt,
he embarked on wars of expansion.
He first conquered Al Ḩijâz (the Hejaz, now in Saudi Arabia)
in 1819 and Sudan from 1820 to 1822; by 1824 he was ready to help
the Ottoman sultan put down an insurrection in Greece. The European
powers, however, intervened to halt Egyptian advances in Greece,
and Muhammad Ali was forced to withdraw his army. At home, Muhammad
Ali encouraged the production of cotton to supply the textile mills
of Europe, and he used the profits to finance industrial projects.
He established a monopoly over all commodities and imposed trade
barriers to nurture industry. He sent Egyptians abroad for technical
education and hired experts from Europe to train his army and build
his manufacturing industries (which, however, were never as successful
as he hoped they would be). In 1831 Muhammad Ali invaded Syria,
thereby coming into conflict with his Turkish overlord.
The Egyptians defeated the Ottoman armies, and by 1833 they were
threatening the Turkish capital, Constantinople (present-day Ýstanbul).
Once again, Russia, Britain, and France intervened, this time to
protect the sultan. Muhammad Ali’s forces withdrew, but he was
left in control of Syria and Crete. Egyptian expansion and control
over trade routes conflicted with Britain’s growing interest in
the Middle East as a market for its burgeoning industrial production.
The threat to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire also disturbed
Britain and roused fears of Russian encroachment in the Mediterranean.
For these reasons the British opposed Egypt, and when Muhammad
Ali again rebelled against the sultan in 1839, they stepped in for
the third time to make him back down. He was offered hereditary
possession of Egypt, but had to give up his other conquests and
remain an Ottoman vassal.
Bankruptcy and Foreign Control
After the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, Egypt came increasingly
under European influence. His son, Said Pasha, made some attempt
to modernize the government, but left a huge debt when he died.
His successor, Ismail Pasha, increased the national debt by borrowing
lavishly from European bankers to develop the country and pay for
the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869.
These spendthrift rulers drove the country into bankruptcy and
ultimately into the control of their British and French creditors.
In 1876 an Anglo-French commission took charge of Egypt’s finances,
and in 1879 the sultan deposed Ismail in favor of his son Tawfik
Pasha. Army officers, disgusted by the government’s weakness,
then led a rebellion to end foreign control. Tawfik appealed to
the British for help, and they occupied Egypt in 1882.
Egypt Under the British
British interest in Egypt stemmed from the Suez Canal as the short
route to India. Promises to evacuate the country once order had
been restored were broken, and the British army remained in occupation
until 1954. Although Tawfik remained on the throne as a figurehead
prince, the British consul general was the real ruler of the country.
The first and most important consul general was Sir Evelyn Baring
(known after 1892 as Lord Cromer).
A nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kamil, a European-educated
lawyer, was backed by Tawfik’s successor, Abbas II, during the
late 1800s and early 1900s. Kamil agitated for self-government and
an end to the British occupation but was ignored by British authorities.
In this period Egyptian agriculture was so completely dominated
by cotton grown to feed the textile mills of Lancashire, England,
that grain had to be imported to feed the rural population. Irrigation
projects were carried out to increase the arable land, and in due
course the entire debt to Britain was paid.
British promises to evacuate diminished as Egypt and the Suez
Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy.
The illegal occupation was, in fact, internationally sanctioned
in 1904, when France recognized British rights in Egypt in return
for British acknowledgment of French rights in Morocco.
Protectorate Declared
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought nationalist activities
in Egypt to an end. When Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany,
Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed Abbas II in favor
of his uncle, Hussein Kamil, who was given the title of sultan.
Legal ties between Egypt and Turkey were finally severed, and Britain
promised Egypt some changes in government once the war was over.
The war years resulted in great hardship for Egyptian peasants,
the fellahin, who were conscripted to dig ditches and whose livestock
was confiscated by the army. Inflation was rampant. These factors
were responsible for increasing resentment against the British and
set the stage for the violent upheaval that was to come after World
War I ended in 1918.
The Puppet Monarchy
Allied promises that former Ottoman territories would be allowed
self-determination raised hopes in Egypt of independence once the
war was over. A new nationalist movement, the Wafd ("delegation"),
was formed in 1918 to plan for the country’s future. Hopes were
dashed when Britain refused to consider Egyptian needs, and Saad
Zaghlul, the leader of the Wafd, was exiled. The country erupted
in violent revolt, and Britain was forced to reconsider its decision.
Zaghlul was released, but his efforts to get a hearing at the
Paris Peace Conference were thwarted by the British. Violence continued
until 1922, when Britain unilaterally declared Egypt an independent
monarchy under Hussein’s successor, who became king as Fuad I.
The British, however, reserved the right to intervene in Egyptian
affairs if their interests were threatened, thereby robbing Egypt
of any real independence and allowing British control to continue
unabated. The new constitution of 1924 set up a bicameral legislature,
but, under pressure from the British and Fuad, gave the latter the
right to nominate the premier and to suspend Parliament.
The result was a tripartite struggle for mastery over Egypt involving
the king, the British ambassador, and the Wafd, which was the only
grass-roots party. One government after another fell after trying
unsuccessfully to extract concessions from the British. In 1936,
under pressures caused by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, an Anglo-Egyptian
treaty was finally signed, but it continued the physical occupation
of Egypt by the British army and the involvement of the British
army in internal affairs.
The Coup of 1952
World War II (1939-1945) suspended further political bargaining.
The war years brought inflation, interparty strife, and disillusion
with the Wafd. Fundamentalist religious organizations, such as the
Muslim Brotherhood, and Communist groups developed. In 1948 Egypt
and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt
to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. Blaming the
government for its loss, the army turned against King Faruk, Fuad’s
son, who showed no aptitude for government and a blatant disregard
for public well-being and morality. In 1952 a group of army officers
carried out a successful coup d’etat that ousted the king and
in 1953 declared Egypt a republic.
The Republican Era
The first president of the republic, General Muhammad Naguib,
was a figurehead. The real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser of the
Revolutionary Command Council, the officers who had plotted the
revolution. In April 1954 Nasser became prime minister. In November
of that year, Naguib was removed from power, and Nasser assumed
complete executive authority. In July 1956 Nasser was officially
elected president.
The Nasser Years
At first Nasser followed a pro-Western policy and successfully
negotiated the evacuation of British forces from Egypt in 1954.
Soon he turned to a policy of neutrality and solidarity with other
African and Asian nations and became an advocate of Arab unity.
The Suez Crisis
In efforts to acquire armaments, which the Western world would
not supply to Egypt, Nasser turned to the Eastern bloc. In retaliation,
the World Bank rejected Egypt’s request for a loan to finance
the Aswân High Dam project.
Nasser therefore nationalized the Suez Canal in July 1956 and
sought to use its revenues to finance the dam, precipitating what
would be called the Suez crisis. Angered by that move, Britain and
France, the main stockholders in the canal, arranged a military
operation with Israel. Israel had been planning an attack since
1951, when Egypt began blocking Israeli passage through the Strait
of Tiran, denying Israel access to the Red Sea. Israel invaded the
Sinai Peninsula in October 1956, and British and French forces established
control over the Suez Canal within days.
Pressure from the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) forced the three countries to evacuate Egyptian
territory, and United Nations (UN) forces were placed as a buffer
between Egypt and Israel. Pursuing his dream of Arab unity, Nasser
in 1958 effected a union between Egypt and Syria under the name
of the United Arab Republic. Although it lasted only three years
before the Syrians rebelled and reaffirmed their independence, Egypt
retained the official name of the republic for many years afterward.
Arab Socialism
Within Egypt the Nasser regime suppressed political opposition
and established a one-party system as a means of reforming political
life. A series of decrees limited land ownership and undermined
the authority of the landowning elite. In 1961 foreign capital invested
in Egypt was nationalized, as were public utilities and local industries,
all of which became part of the public sector.
This new order, which Nasser called Arab Socialism, aimed at greater
social equality and economic growth. In 1962 a national charter
was drawn up, and the official National Union Party was renamed
the Arab Socialist Union. Women, who had been emancipated earlier,
were elected to the union, as were workers. The first woman cabinet
minister was appointed.
Wars of the 1960s
In 1962 Egypt became embroiled in a civil war in Yemen, backing
a republican movement against monarchist forces. This venture cost
lives and money and left the country weakened. In 1967 Nasser, continuing
the Arab struggle against Israel, closed the Strait of Tiran to
Israeli shipping and requested that the UN forces be withdrawn from
the border.
The Israelis, believing that Nasser was preparing for war, struck
first, attacking and destroying Egyptian airfields and positions
in the Sinai. Israeli forces advanced until they reached the right
bank of the Suez Canal. This Six-Day War left Israel in possession
of the whole Sinai Peninsula. The UN Security Council passed Resolution
242, which emphasized the "inadmissibility of acquiring territory
by war" and called for Israeli withdrawal from Occupied Territories.
Israel read the resolution as withdrawal from "some territories"
and continued to occupy the Sinai.
When negotiations seemed to be leading nowhere, Nasser turned
to the USSR, which rearmed Egypt in return for a naval base. Nasser
died suddenly in 1970. Problems of succession to the post of president
were settled when Vice President Anwar al-Sadat, a long-time colleague
of Nasser, was chosen to succeed him.
The Sadat Regime
Sadat was elected by opposing political factions as a compromise
candidate, on the assumption that he could be manipulated. The new
president, however, outwitted his would-be puppeteers and, with
the support of the army, put them under arrest. He freed political
prisoners who had been incarcerated by Nasser for opposing his policies,
and called for a regime of economic and political liberalization,
especially for the press, which Nasser had strictly controlled.
The War of 1973
Skirmishes between Egypt and Israel had continued after 1969,
and this "war of attrition" had resulted in high Egyptian casualties
and burdensome military expenditures. Sadat tried to find a way
out of that impasse by negotiation. Unsuccessful, he secretly planned
another round against Israel. He first repaired his fences with
the Arab states, especially Saudi Arabia, which financed arms purchases
from the Soviet Union.
Then, on October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur
and during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, Egypt launched an air
and artillery assault across the Suez Canal. Within hours, thousands
of Egyptian soldiers had successfully crossed into the Sinai. Protected
by a missile umbrella that destroyed Israeli aircraft, they overran
and captured the string of Israeli fortifications known as the Bar-Lev
line. Israel was caught unprepared. By the middle of the month,
however, it had regained the initiative and was able to encircle
Egyptian units on the outskirts of Suez. The United Nations then
imposed a cease-fire, and an armistice line patrolled by UN forces
was eventually established between the Egyptian and the Israeli
armies.
Rapprochement with Israel
Although Egypt did not win the war, it effectively challenged
the 1967 boundaries and, helped by the "shuttle diplomacy" of U.S.
secretary of state Henry A. Kissinger, regained control of the Suez
Canal. Having boosted Egyptian morale, Sadat was ready for negotiations.
In 1974 and 1975 Egypt and Israel concluded agreements—again mediated
by Kissinger—providing disengagement on the Sinai front. In June
1975 Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, permitting passage to ships
carrying Israeli cargoes.
Israel withdrew beyond the strategic passes and from some of the
oil fields in the Sinai. Meanwhile, Egypt’s economic position
was growing rapidly worse; by early 1976 the country’s debt to
the USSR was estimated at $4 billion. The following year, surprising
all, Sadat asked the Soviet military advisers to leave the country
and threw his lot in with the United States, declaring it held the
key to peace in the Middle East. Even more surprising, on November
19, 1977, Sadat flew to Israel and addressed the Knesset (parliament)
in a bid for peace. The historic journey was followed by further
negotiations under U.S. auspices. At a tripartite conference with
U.S. president Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland, in September
1978, Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin agreed on
a framework for an Israeli-Egyptian settlement. A peace treaty between
the two nations, based on the Camp David Accords, was signed in
Washington, D.C., on March 26, 1979.
Sadat’s Assassination
The rest of the Arab world denounced Egypt for making a separate
peace with Israel, and some of the more "hard-line" Arab leaders
branded Sadat a traitor to the Arab cause. The Sinai was gradually
restored to Egypt, but later Egyptian-Israeli talks on a settlement
of the Palestinian issue made little progress. Egypt was expelled
from the Arab League in 1979 because of the peace treaty, and the
league’s headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis, Tunisia.
In 1989 Egypt was readmitted to the league; the headquarters were
moved back to Cairo the following year.
By 1981 Sadat was meeting increasing opposition within Egypt itself,
especially from Muslim fundamentalists, who opposed any accommodation
with Israel. Sadat responded with a crackdown, arresting and jailing
hundreds of his opponents, and placing restrictions on the press.
In such an atmosphere he was assassinated by religious extremists
within his own army on October 6, 1981, during a military parade
commemorating the 1973 war.
Egypt Under Mubarak
Sadat was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak. While adhering
to the Camp David accords, Mubarak sought political liberalization
within Egypt as well as improved relations with other Arab states.
Israel completed its withdrawal from the Sinai on April 25, 1982.
In January 1984 Egypt accepted an invitation to rejoin the 42-member
Islamic Conference. That April, in Egypt’s first parliamentary
elections under Mubarak, the ruling National Democratic Party captured
87 percent of the vote. After a national referendum in February
1987 authorized the dissolution of the People’s Assembly, new
elections were held in April. Although the National Democratic Party
won 338 of 448 seats, the Muslim Brotherhood showed increased strength.
President Mubarak was reelected in a referendum in October 1987.
After Egypt took part in the U.S.-led coalition that defeated Iraq
in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, about half of its $20.2-billion
debt to the allies was forgiven, and the rest was rescheduled. In
1992 Muslim fundamentalists began launching violent attacks against
government officials, Coptic Christians, tourists, unveiled women,
and others in a campaign to replace Mubarak’s government with
one based on strict Islamic law.
As a result of the attacks, revenues from tourism dropped 42 percent
between 1992 and 1993. The government cracked down severely on the
militants, executing 29 of them in 1993. In October 1993 Mubarak
won a referendum electing him to a third term as president. In November
1995, just before parliamentary elections, Mubarak’s government
accused the Muslim Brotherhood of helping violent Islamic groups.
Many of the Muslim Brotherhood’s members were arrested, and several
who planned to run in the elections or monitor them were tried and
sentenced to prison. Critics accused the government of trying to
eliminate even peaceful opponents. In the elections that followed,
Mubarak’s National Democratic Party won an overwhelming victory.
Passports and Visas
Non-Egyptian visitors arriving in Egypt are required to be in possession
of a passport valid for a minimum 6 months period. Entry visas may
be obtained from Egyptian Diplomatic and Consular Missions abroad
or from the Entry Visa Department at the Travel Documents, Immigration
and Nationality Administration (TDINA). It is, however, possible
for most tourists and visitors to obtain an entry visa at any of
the major ports of entry. Please check with the nearest Egyptian
Consulate for specific details and regulations relevant to your
nationality.
Egyptian Embassies and Consulates outside Egypt
Although we will be constantly updating the content of our information,
it is the responsibility of the surfer and traveller to check that
the below regulations are still valid. In case of any doubt please
contact the Egyptian Embassy or Consulate in your country. Remember,
you will need to carry your passport with you at all times. If you
are travelling between Red Sea cities or to a national park in Egypt,
it is especially important to have your passport to be able to enter
and cross possible check points between cities.
Passports and Identity Cards
All nationalities need a passport with minimum 6 months validity.
Upon arrival (or during the flight) they will be asked to fill in
a form that will be handed over at the customs desk.
Children
Children must be in possession of their own passport or (for Italian
and German citizens) an identity card valid for travel abroad. Alternatively
and only in case they are traveling with one of the parents, they
can be on the parent’s passport. If the child is more than 10
years old, a recent picture must be on the parents’ passport.
Children more than 15 years old cannot be in parent’s passport
and need a separate passport. Children need a visa only if they
are traveling with their own passport or identity card. We remind
you as well that you have to also fulfill any law concerning minors’
expatriation from the country you are leaving from.
Egyptian Visa
Citizens of most nationalities can obtain a tourist visa upon arrival
at the airports in Egypt, valid for 30 days and for one single entry.
The process is straightforward. You have to buy the visa at the
airport before crossing the passport control; the fee varies from
15 to 50 US$ according to your nationality and can not be paid in
Egyptian pounds. The visa stamps are stuck to your passport and
you can then proceed to the passport control. A pre-arrival visa,
which has to be obtained before departure and from the Egyptian
Consulate or Embassy nearest to your residence town, is required
in the following cases
- If your nationality does not entitle you to a tourist visa upon
arrival;
- If you need a multiple tourist visa;
- If you require a visa for purposes other than tourism (e.g.
work, study, etc)
To apply for a pre-arrival visa, please contact the nearest Egyptian
consulate. For a list of all Egyptian diplomatic missions, click
here. Your application requires the following documents
- A passport that is valid for at least another six months
- One passport-sized photograph
- A completed application form
The pre-arrival visa fee depends on your nationality. South African
and Sudanese citizens pay no fee; others pay between 20 and 60 US$.
It is valid for three months from the date of issue and allows you
to stay in Egypt for 30 days from the date of your arrival. The
possession of a valid Entry Visa is needed to complete the residence
procedure in Egypt. A free Sinai residence permit with fourteen
days validity is possible for travellers wishing to visit exclusively
the Gulf of Aqaba coast and St. Catherine and entering Egypt at:
- The overland border of Taba or
- Sharm el Sheikh or Taba airports or
- Nuweiba harbour
The free Sinai residence permit does not allow tourists in Sinai
to visit the Ras Mohamed National Park, Cairo or Luxor or any other
place not located along the Gulf of Aqaba coast; moreover it does
not allow travellers to enter the country at Hurghada or Marsa Alam
airports, not to dive or to go on live-aboard cruises.
Notes
- Foreigners arriving in Egypt on board cruising ships are granted
a permission to visit the port of arrival for 24 hours (transit
visa) and catch their ship at the same port. They can also be
granted a permission to enter the country for a visit not exceeding
a period of 3 days before catching their ship at the port of arrival
or at any other port.
- Air passengers transiting in Egyptian airports are allowed entry
for a quick trip not exceeding the period of 24 hours (transit
visa). In the event of emergency landing, passengers are entitled
to enter Egypt for a period of:
- 24 hours in case of poor weather conditions;
- 48 hours in case of technical faults to the aircraft.
- Those in possession of a residence permit in Egypt are not required
to obtain an entry visa if they leave the country and return to
it within the validity of their residence permit or within six
months, whichever period is less.
Before you travel:
It is important that you ensure you have the correct travel documents
for your journey. It is always important to check that your passport
is up to date and any necessary visas obtained, in advance of travel.
When making a booking your name must match your name as it appears
on your passport or travel document. We cannot accept you for travel
unless all your documents match. Passports are required for all
international flights and should be valid for at least 3 months
beyond the length of stay.
Passengers under the age of 16 who are travelling with an adult
on the same booking do not need photographic identification to travel
but it is advisable that they have some form of identification eg
(birth certificate, bus pass, student ID).
Embassies in Egypt
- AUSTRALIA
- World Trade Center (11th Floor), Corniche El Nil, Boulak (Code
No. 11111) Cairo
- Telephone: 570-2975
- Fax: 570-2979
- BELGIUM
- 20, Kamel El Shennawi St., Garden City
- Telephone: 794 74 94 / 5 / 6 Visa 792 59 66
- Fax: 794 31 47
- FINLAND
- 3, Abou El Feda St, Zamalek
- Telephone: 3411487-3413722
- Fax: 3405170
- FRANCE
- 29 Ave. de Chalres de Gaulle BP 1777 - Giza (Guizeh) Cairo
- Telephone: 570-3916
- Fax: 571-0276
- GREECE
- 18, Aisha El Taymouria St., Garden CIty
- Telephone: 3551074-3550443
- Fax: 3563903
- IRELAND
- 3 Abu El Feda St., Zamalek
- Telephone: 3408264-3408547
- Fax: 3412863
- ISRAEL
- 6, Ibn Malek St., Giza
- Telephone: 3610545-3610537
- Fax:
- ITALY
- 15, Abdel Rahman Fahmi St.,Garden City
- Telephone: 3543194-3543195
- Fax: 3540657
- JAPAN
- 2nd, 8th and 9th Floors Cairo Center Building 2 Abdell Kader
Hamza St., Garden City Cairo
- Telephone: 795-3962
- Fax: 796-3540
- POLAND
- 5, Aziz Osman St., Zamalek
- Telephone: 3409583
- Fax: 3415483
- PORTUGAL
- 15A, El Mansour Mohamed St., Zamalek
- Telephone: 3405583
- Fax: 3415483
- ROMANIA
- 4, Aizi Abaza St., Zamalek
- Telephone: 3410107
- Fax: 3410851
- RUSSIA
- 95, El Giza St., Giza
- Telephone: 3489353
- Fax: 3609074
- UNITED KINGDOM
- 7 Ahmed Ragheb St. Garden City Cairo
- Telephone: 794-0852
- Fax: 794-3065
- UNITED STATES
- 5 Latin America St. Garden City Cairo
- Telephone: 797-3300
- Fax: 797-3200
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